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GLADDEN

770

GLADIATOU

In their movement glaciers produce notable effects on the surfaces over which they pass. In the first place, they gather up the loose d6bris on the surface over which they move. This de"bris is carried forward a greater or less distance, and finally deposited. If the surface over which a glacier moves is rough, the ice tends to make it smooth by breaking off the projecting points. The bottom of the ice thus becomes charged with stony debris, and this debris increases the wear which the moving ice inflicts on the surface over which it passes. The earthy and stony material carried by the ice is moraine matter. The larger part of it is carried in the base of the ice. After deposition this basal material is called ground moraine. If the end of a glacier or the edge of an ice-sheet remains constant in position for a long period of time, considerable accumulations of drift, as the debris is called, are made at the margin of the ice. Such marginal accumulations are terminal moraines. The surfaces of alpine glaciers often carry some debris. If this is arranged in belts along the sides of a glacier, these belts are lateral moraines. The same name is applied to belts or ridges of drift deposited along the lateral margins of a glacier. If the de"bris on the ice is arranged in belts remote from the edges but lengthwise of the glacier, they are medial moraines. The material of lateral and medial moraines does not chiefly fall on the ice, as is commonly supposed, but works up from beneath. The melting of the ice gives rise to abundant water, which frequently carries away the material which the ice has carried and deposited.

In high latitudes glaciers often descend to the sea before being melted. In this case their ends may be broken off and float away as icebergs. In mountain regions the ends of glaciers sometimes break off and fall or slide rapidly down precipitous mountain slopes. Such ice slides, like slides of snow in great quantity, are avalanches.

At certain periods in the past history of the earth ice-sheets have been very much more extensive than now (see glacial

§eriod, under GEOLOGY).   See Glaciers by haler and Davis;   also articles on glaciers in the Journal of Geology.

R. D. SALISBURY.

Glad'den, Washington, American author and Congregational clergyman, was born at Pottsgrove, Pa., Feb. n, 1836, and graduated in 1859 from Williams College. He has held pastoral appointments in Brooklyn, N. Y., Morrisania, N. Y., North Adams, Mass., Springfield, Mass., and now is pastor of the First Congregational Church, Columbus, O. He has written largely on religious subjects as well as upon social reform. His chief works embrace Applied Christianity; The Christian Way; Who

Wrote the Bible?; The Church and the King-* \dom; Ruling Ideas of the Present Age; Tools and the Man; and Social Salvation.

Glad'iator, a professional fighter in  tHe arena of a  Roman  amphitheater,   against

GLADIATORS

either another gladiator or a wild beast. The custom of giving gladiatorial shows seems to have been borrowed from Etruria, where slaves and prisoners were sacrificed on the tombs of illustrious chieftains. At Rome they took place at first at funerals only, but afterward in the amphitheater, where they lost all religious character. The first one occurring in Roman history was between three pairs of gladiators, arranged by Marcus and Decius Brutus, on the death of their father in 264 B. C. The fashion rapidly spread, and it became the custom, especially during the last years of the republic, for public officers and candidates for popular favor to give free gladiatorial exhibitions to the people. But the emperors exceeded all others in the extent and magnificence of these spectacles. Julius Caesar gave a show at which 320 couples fought; Titus gave an exhibition of gladiators, wild beasts and sea-fights which lasted 100 days, in which 10,000 men fought with each other or with wild beasts. Gladiators for the most part were prisoners taken in war, and slaves, with the worst classes of criminals. But in the times of the emperors freemen and men of broken fortune began to enter the profession; and later on knights and senators fought and even women. The successful fighter was at first rewarded with a palm-branch, but in later years it became the custom to add to this rich and valuable presents and a prize of money. When a gladiator was thrown down or disarmed, if the spectators turned up their thumbs, the vanquished man was to be spared, and if they turned them down, he was to be slain; or, as is more probable, if they turned their thumbs toward their breasts, he was to be stabbed, and if they turned them down, the sword was to be dropped. Many attempts were made to limit or stop gladiatorial