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multitude of little states, the rulers of which exercised almost absolute power within their own territories. The War of the Spanish Succession (1702–13) brought glory to the German arms through the great victories of Prince Eugene, together with the English general Marlborough, over the French, but brought no solid advantage to the empire. During the Seven Years’ War (1756–63), Frederick the Great of Prussia won the name of a skillful general at the expense of the empire.

During the European wars which followed the French Revolution, Germany was almost entirely at the mercy of. In 1805 Francis II resigned the German crown, and became emperor of Austria, and the old empire was at an end. After the fall of Napoleon those states which still were independent combined in 1815 to form a German confederation. Of the 300 states into which the empire had once been divided, there remained only 39, a number afterward reduced to 35. The old diet or assembly, which had formerly elected the emperors, was reorganized but failed to satisfy the nation, and in 1848 insurrections of the discontented people broke out, but ended in nothing. Austria and Prussia had long been rivals for the leadership of Germany, and had made the diet the arena for their rivalry. In 1866 war broke out between them. The Prussian host of 225,400 men entered Bohemia, and, meeting the Austrian army, 262,400 strong, decisively defeated it in the battle of Sadowa and, pushing on toward Vienna, forced a peace which shut out Austria from a share in the future organization of the German states. The states north of the Main were united with Prussia in what was called the North German Confederation. On July 19, 1870, the long-threatened war between Prussia and France broke out. The southern German states at once decided to support Prussia and the northern states, and placed their armies at the disposal of King William. The Germans were victorious in battle after battle, and pushed on steadily, though with heavy loss, toward Paris. The French emperor, Napoleon III, was defeated at Sedan, surrendered his army of 90,000 men, and was sent as a prisoner into Germany. The Germans laid siege to Paris, which surrendered on Jan. 29, 1871. France was condemned to pay $1,000,000,000; and the province of Alsace, with the German part of Lorraine, was ceded to Germany. But the most important result of the war was to complete the union of the northern and southern states of Germany. The old empire was restored, with the king of Prussia as hereditary emperor, and on Jan. 18, 1871, at Versailles, France, King William was proclaimed emperor of Germany.

Under the skillful leadership of Prince Bismarck, then chancellor, the new empire steadily grew in power and influence. Troubles arising with the church of Rome have been settled. The spread of socialism has excited, and still excites, some alarm. When Emperor William died, his son Frederick reigned but a few months (March to June, 1888), and was succeeded by his son William II, who has followed the policy of William I and Prince Bismarck, rather than the more liberal one promised by his father’s short reign. The young emperor in 1888 and 1889 visited several of the courts of Europe. In 1890 the rupture for some time threatened between William II and Bismarck took place, and the Iron Chancellor, who had so long been the guiding spirit of the empire was deposed. On March 20 General Georg von Caprivi became chancellor, and in 1894 he was succeeded by Prince Hohenlohe-Schillingsfürst. On the death of the latter, in 1900, he was succeeded in the chancellorship by Count von Bülow. Since 1900 Germany has enjoyed great commercial development and enormous industrial expansion, while representative government and socialist ideas have gained ground greatly, until the Social Democrats have become a leading instead of a minor party. See Bryce’s Holy Roman Empire and Bayard Taylor’s, Baring-Gould’s and Gilman’s Germany.

German Language, The, is closely related to, Flemish and Frisian, forming with these the western Teutonic group of languages. Literary German is essentially the High German rather than the Low German dialect. Old High German dates from the eighth century to the beginning of the twelfth; Middle High German thence to the beginning of the 16th century; and Modern German from the Renaissance to the present time. It is commonly said that was the founder of modern literary German; but, if one may trust his own statement; he merely adopted the official language of the imperial chancery and the imperial court. In this language the Middle High German vowels, long i, long u and ū́, had given place to the diphthongs ei, au and eu. Luther says (Table-Talk, ch. LXIX):  “I have no particular language of my own in German, but use the common German language, so that both High and Low Germans may understand me. I follow the language of the Saxon chancery, which all the princes and kings of Germany take as their model; all the free imperial cities and all the courts of princes write according to the chancery of the Saxons and of our prince. Hence it is the most common German language.” Certainly, however, Luther’s writings and especially his translation of the Bible did much to fix the form of modern literary German. The old German empire indeed, was so divided in its politics, history and religion that modern German has only