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GALILEO Galile′o (usual designation of Galileo Galilei), the founder of modern physics, was born at Pisa, Feb. 18, 1564, and died at Arcetri, near Florence, Jan. 8, 1642. In 1581, at the age of seventeen, he entered the University of Pisa where a brilliant career awaited him, not only in mathematics and mechanics but in literature, eloquence, music and art. From 1592 to 1610 he held a chair of mathematics in the University of Padua. The remainder of his life was mostly spent at Florence. It is easy to recall Galileo’s position in time, if we remember that he was born on the day of Michelangelo’s death and that he died in the year of Newton’s birth.

In popular estimation Galileo has ranked as a great astronomical discoverer, and rightly so; but it is now clear that his chief service to science is the establishment of modern dynamics.

To him we owe a clear statement of the fundamental assumption of physical science, namely, that nature always behaves in the same way in the same circumstances.

To him we owe also the ideas which underlie the first two of Newton’s laws of motion. See.

He first enunciated the correct laws of falling bodies, showing that, if we neglect the resistance of the air, the path of a projectile must be an ellipse. In astronomy he did not invent the telescope, as is so often asserted; but he used this instrument with great skill to discover spots on the sun, measure its rotation-period, discover four of the satellites of Jupiter, observe the phases of Mercury and Venus and find the elongated form of Saturn which Huygens later showed to be due to the planet’s rings.

But no astronomical service of Galileo can outrank that which he did in establishing the Copernican system by showing the mechanical principles upon which the solar system is constructed. In 1616 he was warned by the Inquisition not to “hold, teach or defend” the Copernican system, and agreed to act upon their advice. Nevertheless, in 1632, he published his Dialogue Concerning the Two Great Systems of the Universe, which proved to be a somewhat disguised yet powerful argument for the Copernican view. As a result he was summoned to Rome in Oct., 1632, where he disavowed his adherence to the heliocentric system. The story which is often told of his recanting and then remarking concerning the earth, as he rose from his knees: “It does move, however!” is a pure fiction of later times.

An English translation of the more important of Galileo’s writings is sadly needed.  Gallatin, Albert, an American statesman, was born at Geneva, Switzerland, Jan. 29, 1761. He studied in its university, and in 1780 emigrated to America. He served a short time in the Continental army, and taught French for a year at Harvard College. He settled in Pennsylvania, and was naturalized in 1786. He soon entered politics. When the “whiskey insurrection” broke out, Gallatin, at considerable personal risk, helped to bring it to a peaceful close. From 1795 to 1801 he was a member of the house of representatives, and was a recognized leader in his party. He directed his attention especially to financial questions, and under Jefferson and Madison was secretary of the treasury, where his successful management and his writings made him recognized as one of the first financiers of the age. He also took an important part in the negotiations for peace with England in 1814, and signed the treaty of Ghent. He served as minister to France and to England together with other important posts. The latter part of his life was devoted to literature. He made a study of the American Indians, and wrote several works on the subject. He died at Astoria, N. Y., Aug. 12, 1849. See Life by Henry Adams.  Galley, a long, narrow rowboat, carrying a sail or two, but depending for safety and movement upon oars. When small, galleys were called galleots and brigantines. An old-time galley was about 150 feet long, and its greatest beam was 20 feet wide. It carried two masts, a mainmast and a foremast, each with a great lateen-sail. There were a short deck at the prow and one at the stern. Between the two were sometimes 54 banks or benches, 27 on a side, occupied on either side by four or five slaves, whose duty was to propel the vessel by means of oars. If a Christian vessel, the rowers were either Turkish or Moorish captives or Christian convicts; if a Barbary corsair, the rowers were Christian prisoners. Sometimes a galley-slave worked as long as twenty years, sometimes all his life, at this onerous calling. Slaves were chained so close together on their narrow bench that they could not sleep at full length. Biscuit was made to last six or eight months, each slave getting 28 ounces three times a week and a spoonful of some mess of bones, rice or green stuff. Between the two lines of rowers ran the bridge, and on it stood two boatswains, armed with long whips with which they scourged the slaves. On a large galley, besides 270 rowers, there was a mixed crew of about 75 men, together with 50 or 60 soldiers; so that the whole equipment of a fighting-galley must have reached about 400 men. A galleas originally was a large, heavy galley, but later it became a sailing ship, as was the galleon of the Spaniards. See S. Lane-Poole’s The Barbary Corsairs.  Galls, deformities produced on plants by insects, fungi and slime-moulds. One species