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FORTUNA

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FORTUNY Y CARBO

second line of works in the rear. Often redoubts have only two sides meeting at a point in front; or they may be five-sided —two in front called the faces, two on the flanks and in the rear a lower side called the gorge. The faces and flanks are formed by parapets (meaning "guard the breast"), twelve to sixteen feet thick, to resist artillery. The gorge is shut in usually by a light parapet, say three feet thick, or by a stockade (a wall of bullet-proof timber). In building a redoubt a ditch is made in front. Sometimes sharp palings, called palisades, are planted in the bottom. The top or crest of the parapet is never more than twelve feet above the ground in a field-redoubt. Fieldworks of this kind can be built in from eighteen to twenty-four hours, and are able to withstand the fire of field-guns. Blockhouses are now only used in mountain-warfare, where artillery could not be used and timber is plentiful.

Permanent fortification, for the defense of cities, harbors, tracts of country, bridges, roads and the like goes back to the earliest times. Its aim formerly was to keep out the enemy, unaccompanied by counterattacks, except sorties to destroy siege-works and batteries. Since 1859 detached works and free maneuvering ground between them for counter-attack have been used for permanent works as well as for field-intrenchments. This is due to the great improvement in artillery and small arms, cannon easily destroying the strongest works at long range and the breech-loading rifle increasing the power of armies in the open field.

In Greek history we read of cities surrounded with walls of brick, stone and rubble. Babylon had a wall of enormous length, 100 feet high and 32 feet thick, surmounted by towers. Jerusalem at the time of Vespasian's siege had like walls. But the square and round towers which had been defense enough against arrows, and the walls which had withstood battering rams, were soon found to be useless against cannon. Early in the i5th century the Italians began to flank their walls with bastions (built like the outer faces of a redoubt). This form of defense was carried to great perfection by the great Vauban, the engineer of Louis XIV. He built 33 new fortresses, improved over one hundred and himeslf carried on more than fifty sieges. Vauban's forts were in the shape of a polygon. The main body of the place is called the enceinte. Bastions are built out, and joined by a parapet called a curtain. A rampart is formed of the earth dug from the ditch, and a parapet is built on it. To protect the flanks an outwork on the far side of the main ditch is built, called the ravelin. As cannon became more powerful, the masonry had to be covered

by what are called counter-guards. The enceinte or main fortification at Antwerp is a good example of the best modern modification of the old system of Vauban. The fortifications at Antwerp also show how the science has changed, outworks close to the enceinte being replaced by a chain of detached forts three to five miles from it. At Antwerp the forts are about a mile and a quarter apart and two to three miles in front. Each has 700 yards of front, 120 guns, 15 mortars and a garrison of 1,000 men. They are in the shape of square redoubts. If attacked, supporting batteries would be thrown up between them, and, before the main fortress can be reached, at least two must be captured, which would be very difficult in the face of an army which could be gathered in the 200 square miles shut in by the chain of forts. These forts are joined by a circular railroad. Since the war of 1870 the whole of France has been fortified in this way, making it a camp-fortress, as the Austrians say.

A seapoxt or dockyard must be fortified in a different way from an inland town, as the heaviest guns can be brought against it by the enemy's ships, and it can now be bombarded at a distance of ten or more miles. The first line of defense is made of submarine mines. To protect these, shore batteries are thrown up, able to drive back a landing party. Electric lights to discover the position of the enemy, guard-boats, swift steamers to scout in front and torpedo-boats are necessary. For the real defense the heaviest guns to be had are mounted. See Military Engineering by Prof. D. H. Mahan.

Fortu'na, called by the Greeks Tyche, was, in mythology, the goddess of chance. Pindar considers her a sister of the Fates. She differed from them, however, in working without law, conferring joy or sorrow as she pleased. She had temples at Smyrna, Corinth and Elis, and two statues of her at Antium were consulted as oracles. Greek poets and sculptors represented her with a rudder, with a ball or wheel or with wings. The Romans proudly said that when she entered their city, she threw away her ball and put off her wings and shoes, to indicate that she meant to dwell with them forever.

Fortune Bay, an electoral district of Newfoundland. Population (1901) 8,762; chief towns: Belloram, Garnish, Harbor Breton, Pushthrough and Bay d'Argent.

Fortuny y Carbo (for-tpo'ne e kar'bo') Mariano, an eminent Spanish painter, was born at Reus, in Catalonia, in 1839, and studied at the Academy of Barcelona and in Italy. He was a vivid portrayer of domestic life in the east. Among his best-known works are The Spanish Marriage and Academicians Choosing a Model. He died at Rome on Nov. 21, 1874.