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BRAPER

DRAWING

Draper,  Andrew    Sloan,   an   American

educator, was born at Westford, N. Y., June 21, 1848, and graduated at Albany Academy and Albany Law School. He set out in life as a practicing lawyer, and in 1881 was a member of the New York state assembly and a judge of the United States court of Alabama claims. He then devoted himself to educational work, and successively filled the offices of member of the Albany school-board, superintendent of public instruction at New York and superintendent of schools at Cleveland, O. In 1894 he became regent and president of the University of Illinois, resigning in 1904 to become commissioner of education of the state of New York. He has written largely on educational topics, American schools and American citizenship; on the powers and obligations of teachers; and on the responsibility and authority of school trustees. Among his published writings are The Organization and Administration of City-School Systems (1888), American Schools and American Citizenship (1891), Public School Pioneering in New York and Massachusetts (1892), and American Universities and the National Life.

Draper, John William, an American chemist and physiologist as well as author, was born in 1811 near Liverpool, England. He came to America in 1833, and studied medicine in the University of Pennsylvania. After graduating he was appointed professor of chemistry and physiology in Hampton-Sydney College, Virginia. Some years later he accepted a like position in the University of the City of New York, and in 1841 was appointed professor in its medical college. He discovered many important facts of spectrum-analysis, and made important discoveries in photography. Besides his scientific writings, he found time to write valuable literary works, his Intellectual Development of Europe being translated into most European languages; the History of the American Civil War has also been widely translated. He died in 1882.

Drawing. " Drawing is the act of moving anything in one's own direction." If the thing moved be a point capable of leaving a record of its course, the result is the drawing of a line. Drawing in art is the indicating of directions by the making of lines, these lines generally forming the contours of spots and representing the profiles of forms.

In its strictest sense drawing applies to lines only: thus, outline drawing means the expressing of form or contour by lines alone. More broadly, the term drawing designates any representation more or less in outline, even including the use of tones of gray or color, particularly when such tones are produced by lines or are dependent upon the limiting influence of them: as, pen-and-ink drawing, in which the depth of the tones varies with the number or area of the ink-lines upon the white paper; charcoal-drawing,

in which the depth of the tones varies as the weight of the lines employed; pastel-drawing, in which the colors are ordinarily applied with crayon, stump or finger. In the latter two forms of expression the lines may or may not disappear with the completion of the work. Water-color drawing is a term falling into disuse with the changing methods of employing water-color pigments. Water-colors were formerly used largely for tinting pictures in pen or pencil outline, and are now used more independently. (See PAINTING.) Wash-drawing is a term employed by modern illustrators to designate work in monochrome water-color done without the use of opaque white.

Among artists the word drawing may refer (i) to the indicating of form or contour either in pictorial or plastic art with reference to truth, beauty, technical perfection or all of these; as, "the splendid drawing of Michelangelo's David," meaning the beauty and perfection of the contours, or (2) to form or contour itself when viewed from the standpoint of the artist; as, "the drawing of the branches against the winter-sky " referring to the appearance of the actual branches against the sky. Great masters of this particular aspect of art-expression which we call drawing include Pheidias, Botticelli, Michelangelo, Andrea del Sarto, Raphael, Holbein, Ingres, Puvis de Chavannes, Hoku-sai, Menzel.

In educational phraseology the term drawing is often applied to all work in art, though it really designates only one factor in certain forms of art-expression. This somewhat inaccurate use of the term is due to the supposed commercial value which first won foi this form of art-expression its place in school-courses, but in most localities the work has now outgrown both this estimate of its value and the methods of teaching that went with it. Mechanical ir awing, the making of drawings with the aid of instruments and according to certain accepted conventions for the guidance of workmen and scientists, is properly an aspect of construction rather than of art. In many schools mechanical drawing is now taught in the construction department. Working drawings are mechanical drawings, made to scale and presenting a sufficient number of views of the given object to show all the facts of its form. Freehand drawing is a loose term covering generally all drawing that is not mechanical, even including in some localities water-color painting, design and certain forms of construction. This term shows the disciplinary rather than educational light in which art was at one time held ^as a school subject.

Courses in drawing. Since drawing concerns itself largely with contours and edges, mere drawing is rather an abstraction, and in the interests of the children would take its place after color, a child's interest in the shape of