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CHARLES XIV  the throne when 15 years old, his boyishness tempted Denmark, Poland and Peter the Great of Russia to attack Sweden, at that time the great power of the north. Charles at once besieged Copenhagen and forced a peace. Next, with 8,000 Swedes, he attacked the camp of the Russians, 50,000 strong, and in the battle of Narva routed them with great slaughter. The king of Poland was now driven into the heart of Saxony, conquered and dethroned. In 1700 Charles invaded Russia with an army of 43,000, almost captured the czar and won several battles. But here, trusting to the promises of the Cossack, Mazeppa, the Swede turned southward to meet him. Mazeppa and his troop failed to come up. His reinforcements cut off, he was forced to winter in a hostile and barren country, losing half his army; and though in the spring he marched at once on Peter, he was defeated. With a handful of attendants he fled across the Turkish border, but instead of gaining the sultan as an ally, Russian spies spread such reports about him that he was arrested and imprisoned. In 1714 he escaped and made his way through Germany and Hungary in 16 days. But his love of fighting was only intensified by his misfortunes, and a project now entered his head that promised fighting enough. This was to make peace with Peter, conquer Norway, next land in Scotland and replace the house of Stuart on the English throne. When at peace with the czar, he burst into Norway, and early in 1718, while urging on siege-works in the dead of winter, he was killed by a musket-ball from the fortress. Charles was almost foolishly brave; his dress was simple, and he shared the coarsest food and the hardest labor with the common soldiers with a cheerfulness that won their devotion.  Charles XIV of Sweden. See.  Charles the Bold (Duke of Burgundy), son of Philip the Good of Burgundy, was born Nov. 10, 1433. He succeeded his father as duke in 1467. He was the lifelong enemy of Louis XI of France. Joining with other great nobles in fighting for what they considered their rights as against the crown, their army threatened Paris and defeated the king. The province of Burgundy had once been a kingdom, and Charles now planned to restore it by conquering Lorraine, Switzerland and Provence. In this, however, he was not successful, being twice defeated by the Swiss. Finally, in a battle against the Duke of Lorraine, fighting with his usual courage and boldness, he was killed, Jan. 5, 1477. Richer and more powerful than any prince of his time, of great size and strength, his great ambition and reckless boldness combined to make him the most striking figure of the period.  Charles Edward (the Young Pretender), the son of James Stuart, the first Pretender, was born at Rome, Dec. 31, 1720. Unlike his father and grandfather, he was talented and firm of purpose. As a boy he served in the Spanish army against Austria. On the breaking out of war between France and England in 1744, the French furnished him with a powerful fleet and an army under the command of Marshal Saxe, the greatest soldier of the time, with which to secure the throne of the Stuarts, but the expedition was driven back by storms. The French refusing to let him try again, he managed to collect enough funds to fit out two small vessels. One was driven off by a British cruiser, but the second bore Charles to Scotland, where an army of Highlanders slowly gathered about him. He destroyed an English army sent against him at Prestonpans, eight miles east of Edinburgh, which gave him such a reputation that he marched through England to within 100 miles of London, which he could have captured, but the Highlanders becoming alarmed, forced him to retreat. After winning the battle of Falkirk (Jan. 17, 1746), his Highland chiefs forced him again to retreat to the Highlands, where the disastrous defeat of Culloden ruined his cause. He might have won this battle, too, though his army was smaller than that of the English and, besides was worn out by long marches and hunger, had not the MacDonald clan on the left wing refused to charge, sulking because they had always had the honor of holding the right since the battle of Bannockburn. After months of wandering and adventure, the Pretender escaped from the country. He never took the title of king, but lived thenceforward in Europe as the Count of Albany, until his death at Rome in 1768.  Charles, Law of. When a constant mass of gas is heated, either or both of two things may happen to it. (1) The effect may be to increase the volume of the gas while the pressure remains the same; (2) the effect may be to increase the pressure of the gas while the volume remains constant; or (3) both the volume and the pressure may be changed simultaneously. Charles' law, which might more properly be called Gay-Lussac's law, tells us just how these changes take place. If the mass and pressure of the gas remain constant, then the volume of the gas increases part for each degree centigrade through which it is heated. Thus, if we denote by V0 the volume of the gas at the temperature of melting ice, its volume at any other temperature, Vt, will be given by the following equation:

The fact thus described is known as Charles' law. If the volume remains constant and