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 men were preoccupied by religion. There are indeed not a few fine religious proverbs, but it cannot be shown that those who wrote the secular proverbs also wrote the religious. It is possible and even probable that some of the religious proverbs are the work of the author of the introductory chapters; without dogmatising, I may refer to xiv. 34 (comp. viii. 15, 16), xv. 33, xvi. 1-7, and perhaps to xix. 27, which is quite in the parental tone of chaps. i.-ix. The tone of the secular proverbs is not, from a Christian point of view (of which more later on), an elevated one. The ethical principle is prudential. Virtue or 'wisdom' is rewarded, and vice or 'folly' punished in this life. It is indeed nowhere expressly said that every trouble is a punishment; but there is nothing like xxiv. 16 in this anthology to prevent the reader from inferring it. At any rate, the writers are clearly not in the van of religious thought: no 'obstinate questionings' have yet disturbed their tranquillity.

We need not pause here to demonstrate what no one probably will dispute, that the origin of this first anthology is impersonal. The fact that it is so may well give us the more confidence in the accuracy of the social picture which it contains. This is certainly a pleasing one, and points to a comparatively early period in the history of Judah. Commerce and its attendant luxury have not made such progress as at the time when the introduction was written; poverty is only too well known, but there seems to be a middle class with a sound moral sense, to which the writers of proverbs can appeal. It is true, says one of these, that in daily life 'rich and poor meet together,' but for all that 'Jehovah is the maker of them all' (xxii. 2), and 'he that oppresses the poor reproaches his maker' (xiv. 31). And if it is true on the one hand that 'the poor is hated even of his neighbour' (xiv. 20), and that 'the destruction of the wretched is their poverty' (x. 15), it is equally so on the other that 'he that trusts in his riches shall fall' (xi. 28), and that

Better is the poor man who walks in his blamelessness, than he who is perverse in his ways and is rich (xix. 1).