Page:Jewish Encyclopedia Volume 2.pdf/96

58 —

— Arabic Philosophy Arabic Poetry

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

By way of a general statement, one may say that the Neoplatonic philosophy among the Jews of the eleventh century marks a transitional epoch, leading either to the pure philosophy of the Peripatetics or to the mysticism of the Cabala. The twelfth century saw the apotheosis of pure philosophy and the decline of the Kalam, which latter, being attacked by both the philosophers and the orthodox, perished for lack of champions. This supreme exaltation of philosophy was due, in great measure, to Gazzali (1005-1111) among the Arabs, and to Judah ha-Levi (1140) among the Jews. In fact, the attacks directed against the philosophers by Gazzali in his work, " Tuhfat al-Falasafa " (The Destruction of the Philosophers), not The only produced, by reaction, a current Apotheosis favorable to philosophy, but induced of the philosophers themselves to profit Phiby his criticism, they thereafter ma-

losophy.

king their theories clearer and their

logic closer. The influence of this reaction brought forth the two greatest philosophers that the Arabic Peripatetic school ever produced, name-

Ibn Baja (Aven Pace) and Ibn Roshd (Averroes), both of whom undertook the defense of philosophy. Since no idea and no literary or philosophical movement ever germinated on Arabian soil without leaving its impress on the Jews, Gazzali found an imitator in the person of Judah ha-Levi. This illustrious poet took upon himself to free religion from

ly,

the shackles of speculative philosophy, and to this end wrote the "Cuzari," in which he sought to discredit all schools of philosophy alike. He passes severe censure upon the Motekallamin for seeking to support religion by philosophy. He says, "I consider him to have attained the highest degree of perfection who is convinced of religious truths without having scrutinized them and reasoned over them" ("Cuzari," v.). Then he reduced the chief propositions of the Motekallamin, to prove the unity of God, to ten in number, describing them at length, and concluding in these terms: "Does the Kalam give us more information concerning God and His attributes than the prophet did?" (lb. iii. and iv.) Aristotelianism finds no favor in his eyes, for it is no less given to details and criticism; Neoplatonism alone suited him somewhat, owing to its appeal to his poetic temperament. But the Hebrew Gazzali was no more successful than his Arabian prototype; and his attacks, although they certainly helped to discredit the Kalam for which no one cared any longer were altogether powerless against Peripatetic philosophy, which soon found numerous defenders. In fact, soon after the " Cuzari " made its appearance, Abraham ibn Daud published his "Emunah Raman" (The Sublime Faith), wherein he recapitulated the teachings of the Peripatetics, Al-Farabi and Ibn Sina, upon the physics and metaphysics of Aristotle, and sought to demonstrate that these theories were in perfect harmony with the doctrines of Judaism. "It is an error generally current," says Ibn Daud in the preface of his book, " that the study of specula-

—

philosophy is dangerous to religion. philosophy not only does not harm religion,

True

tive

firms

and strengthens

it."

it

con-

58

of Ibn Daud, however, did not give permanence to Aristotelianism in Judaism. This accomplishment was reserved for Maimonides, who endeavored to harmonize the philosophy of Aristotle with Judaism and to this end the author of the " Yad ha-Hazakah" composed his immortal work, "Dalalat al-Hairin" Maimon- (Guide of the Perplexed) known bet-

The authority

suffice

to



—

ides,

ter

under

Hebrew

its

Nebukim " — which

title

"Moreh

many

served for

centuries as the subject of discussion and comment by Jewish thinkers. In this work, Maimonides, after refuting the propositions of the Motekallamin, considers Creation, the Unity of God, the Attributes of God, the Soul, etc., and treats them in accordance with the theories of Aristotle to the extent in which For exthese latter do not conflict with religion. ample, while accepting the teachings of Aristotle

upon matter and form, he pronounces against the

Nor does he accept Aristotle's eternity of matter. theory that God can have a knowledge of universals If He had no knowlonly, and not of particulars. edge of particulars, He would be subject to constant change. Maimonides argues: "God perceives future events before they happen, and this perception never fails Him. Therefore there are no new ideas He knows that such to present themselves to Him. and such an individual does not yet exist, but that he will be born at such a time, exist for such a period, and then return into non-existence. When then this individual comes into being, God does not learn any new fact nothing has happened that

He knew as he

not

of, for

He knew

this individual, such

now, before his birth" ("Moreh,"

is

i.

20).

While seeking thus

to avoid the troublesome consequences certain Aristotelian theories would entail

upon

religion, Maimonides could not altogether escape those involved in Aristotle's idea of the unity of souls and herein he laid himself open to the attacks of the orthodox. Ibn Roshd (Averroes), the contemporary, of Maimonides, closes the philosophical era of the Arabs. The boldness of this great commentaAverroism. tor of Aristotle aroused the full fury of the orthodox, who, in their zeal, attacked all philosophers indiscriminately, and had all philosophical writings committed to the flames. The theories of Ibn Roshd do not differ fundamentally from those of Ibn Baja and Ibn Tufail, who only follow the teachings of Ibn Sina and Al-Farabi. Like all Arabic Peripatetics, Ibn Roshd admits the hypothesis of the intelligence of the spheres and the hypothesis of universal emanation, through which motion is communicated from place to place to all parts of the universe as far as the supreme world hypotheses which, in the mind of the Arabic philosophers, did away with the dualism involved in

doctrine of

Aristotle's

pure

energy and eternal

But while Al-Farabi, Ibn

Sina, and other hurried, so to speak, over subjects that trenched on religious dogmas, Ibn Roshd delighted in dwelling upon them with full particu-

matter.

Arab philosophers

larity

and

stress.

ter eternal,

Thus he

but form

ter; otherwise, it

"Melanges,"

p.

is

says, "

Not only

is

mat-

potentially inherent in mat-

were a creation ex nihilo (Munk, According to this theory,

444).