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353 opened only in the daytime, communicated with the outer world. The synagogue, or "escole," was toward the southeast. It was burned down in gates,

1844,

Avigrdor, Jacob

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

353

and the present building, of modern construc-

tion, arose in its place.

With regard to its internal administration, the Carriere formed a sort of semi-independent republic, although placed under the control of the provost representing the Holy Chair. It convened its own assemblies or parliaments, appointed its own magistrates and officials, made its laws, its statutes or "ascamot," and regulated its taxes. Its population was divided into three classes, according to their property qualifications each class being represented in the parliament by five delegates or "bay Ions," who were invested with both executive and legislative powers. The taxes were pro rata; and every one liable was required to declare each year upon oath the actual amount of his property. The collection of the taxes was entrusted to both Jews and Christians the school was supported at the common expense and instruction was obligatory and free. Like every other government, that of the Carriere had its critical periods the assessment and collection of taxes especially gave rise to great difficulties and numerous scandals; but, compared with other constitutions, that of the Carriere, taken all in all, was







relatively just

and

liberal.

The history, properly so-called, of the Avignon Jewry may be divided into two parts: the period preceding the fifteenth century, and that following During the former period, the Jews of Avignon it. occupied themselves peaceably in many trades. The their neighcity authorities never disturbed them bors looked upon them with no jealous eye and as farmers, laborers, pedlers, brokers, money-lenders, small merchants, matrimonial agents, sellers of books and manuscripts, surgeons, barbers, and physicians, the Jews were to be found in every branch of human activity. The popes relied on them as treasurers, commissaries, and stewards; the magistrates entrusted them with the assessments of furniture and



books and utilized their knowledge in making

in-

ventories of the estates of deceased perThe university employed them In the sons. Fifteenth, in the purchase of rare and precious Century, manuscripts in short, every branch of the state testified to its good opinion of the Jews of the city by the use it made of them. Unfortunately, toward the second half of the fif;

teenth century, their position underwent a complete change. From that epoch dates an era of violence, disorder,

and persecution, which

lasted

until

the

French Revolution. The causes of this transformawere manifold. First there was the state of general trouble and misery caused throughout the country by the departure of the popes from Avignon; -then the ravages caused by pestilence and inundations the ruin left behind them by the mercenary troops of Francis I. the egotism and the jealousy of the freshly emancipated bourgeoisie finally and especially, the ever-growing intolerance of the Church. Avignon had lost a great portion of its population its commerce, always flourishing under the popes, had come to a standstill; business had almost completely ceased; and discontent was tion









II.— 23

wide-spread. of the Carriere

Avignon

At this economic crisis, the population was considerably increased by the ar-

Jews who had been persecuted in surrounding districts and sought refuge in Avignon and the county. These unfortunate refugees came from rival of

Dauphine, Aries, Marseilles, and the principality of Orange, and naturally brought with them all the energy and activity of their race. This was thought

ground to hold them responsible for the deplorable situation in the city. In the eyes of the populace, it was the Jews who had destroyed the commerce of the country and, by their dubious intrigues, had monopolized all its wealth. widespread outcry arose against them on every side; which, being taken up by the representatives of the city and the Three Estates, soon took the shape of precise accusations against them, against their unscrupulous doings, their robberies, their usuries, and so on and also of denunciations of the liberty accorded to these formidable rivals. From that moment, the delegates of the city and the country incessantly clamored for harsh measures of repression against the inhabitants of the Carriere. The Jews had in no way deserved these attacks. They certainly formed the most miserable portion of the population. They were for the most part poor people who lived from hand to mouth if some of them practised usury, it was generally as brokers Moreover, for rich Lombard or Italian financiers. The regall the usurers of that time were not Jews. isters of court indictments in the fifteenth century are full of proceedings relative to loans on pledges. sufficient

A





Men and women,

clerics and laymen, all dabbled in and papal bulls were of no avail against it. The accusation of monopolizing wealth had no better foundation in fact. The " manif estes, " declared

usury



each year by the Jews at the assessment for taxes, furnish complete evidence of the absurdity of this charge. More than once, the Carriere was upon the verge of being foreclosed and sold by its creditors, so difficult was it for the Jews to pay their debts and numerous fines. If there were any monopolists of wealth at this time, they were the convents and churches. In 1474 Sixtus IV. himself was compelled to issue a bull to restrain the constantly growing wealth of the Carthusian and Celestine monks; nevertheless, in the seventeenth century they owned houses in nearly every street in Avignon, and even the synagogue and a large portion of the Ghetto. However this may be, against the popular indignation the Jews had no protectors other than the sovereigns of the country that is to say, Under the popes. But the papal policy tothe Popes, ward the Jews was of a very capriIt knew no constant cious kind. principle, but varied according to circumstances. The Church defended the Jews when her interests recommended such course and, with a right-about.





them when there was profit in The Jews of Avignon furnished to the their ruin. popes both a source of income and a means of expiating political mistakes and thus it came about that the same pope proclaimed himself at one time face, she sacrificed



and at another their adversary. In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, the popes generally welcomed the grievances of the populace. their defender,