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351 which for five centuries was accepted as a guide in European universities, and which was used as a textbook in the universities of Louvain and

The " Canon."

Montpellier until about 1650. It conbooks, subdivided into funun or fen (sections), tractatus, summa, and caput. Of these volumes the first and second treat of physiology, pathology, and hygiene; the third and fourth, of the methods of treating disease and the fifth, of materia medica. The many points of excellence possessed by the voluminous work and its admirable literary style make it possible to understand readily the reason for its great popularity both in the Oriental schools and among the Occidental Arabists of a later date. It was among the latter, rather than in Arabian Spain where the influence of Averroes was predominant that Avicenna's works attained their greatest popularity. In some respects the " Canon " of Avicenna is not unlike the works of his predecessors Rhazes and Ali, although excelling the " El-Hawi " (Continens), or "Summary," of the former by greater exactness of method. This power of systematization was due perhaps to his mastery of logic a domain in which his acquirements entitled him to be ranked Logic and. as one of the principal forerunners of MetaAlbertus Magnus and his immediate sists of five

—

—

—

physics,

successors, all of

pelled to

draw

whom

were com-

their formulas largely

from Avicenna's works. The logic of Avicenna is distinguished by great comprehensiveness of scope, and by a scrupulously conscientious endeavor on the part of the author

—who here evidently follows the —

example of Al-Farabi to present the subject clearly, comprehensively, and circumstantially.

As regards the fundamental tenets of his philosophy, Avicenna taught that matter, the principle of individuation, does not directly emanate from the Godhead, although it is in its primal origin eternal, and includes within itself all possibilities of development. In other words, he held that while all things are primarily traceable to the agency of an immutable Deity, they can not owe their existence to the immediate influence of such a Deity, inasmuch as the immutable can not itself create substances subject to the element of change. The first and only immediate product of God, therefore, is the worldsoul or world-intelligence, which unwinds an endless chain of creation throughout all the celestial spheres down to the earth. The cause that produces, however, must also conserve, for cause and effect are identical from which it follows that the world itself,

God, must be eternal. Avicenna's psychological views, expressed in the sixth volume of his work on physics (the second part of the "Shefa'," in the so-called "Liber SextusNaturalium "), exerted great influence upon Jewish scholars. In his preface to this book the Latin translator, Johannes HispalenPsychology. sis, declares that it contains "Quidquid Aristoteles dixit in libro suo de anima et de sensu et sensato et de intellectu et intelIn addition to this, Avicenna's principal lecto." work on psychology, he wrote a number of dissertations on the soul, nearly all of which have been like

Avesta

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

351

Avlg-dor

translated into Hebrew; and although in general based upon the psychological theories of Aristotle, Avicenna's views are in many respects original. As an example mention may be made of his division of the soul's attributes into four classes namely, the external powers, or five senses the internal powers the motive powers, and the intellectual powers. Avicenna was also the first philosopher after Galen



to indicate the three cavities of the brain as the seat of the soul's functions; his opinions on this as on

other subjects being later adopted by Jewish authors, and more particularly by Shem-Tob Palaquera, who in his work on psychology shows himself a true adherent of Avicenna. Like the latter, Palaquera proceeds

upon the principle, " Have cognizance of yourself, and you will have cognizance of your Maker," hereby establishing psychology as an introduction to metaphysics.

The works

Avicenna not infrequently contain a fact explained by Averroes (the keenest opponent of the great philosopher) upon the ground that Avicenna was afraid to avow his of

conflicting theories

—

opinions, as he desired to preserve the favor of all parties and to offend none. Indeed, it was early asserted that Avicenna's true views were not con-

tained in the " Shefa' " at all, but were to be found in the mystical work entitled " Oriental Wisdom or Philosophy " a work which now exists neither in Arabic nor in Latin, only a fragment having been

—

preserved in a

Hebrew manuscript

(Steinschneider,

" Jiidische Literatur," p. 301).

Thus it appears that Avicenna's Neoplatonic theory of evolution gradually led him to mysticism, and as adherent of the new Platonic system the soul of the rationalist and that of the mystic were strangely blended in him, which caused him to become the originator of the ultimately fatal doctrine of the twofold truth a doctrine focused in the sentence "Secundum fidem verum; secundum rationem falsum " (True according to faith false according to reason), and later employed in defense of his own bold opinions by Isaac Albalag (compare Joel,

—



"Hasdai Crescas," p. 7). Bibliography Steinschneider, Hehr. Uebers. pp. 17-20, 677Munk, Melanges de Philosophie, pp. 362-366 Kauf701 mann, Thenlogie des Bdhya ibn Pahuda, pp. 196-201 Carra







de Vaux-Avicenne

(Paris, 1900).

A. Lo.

k.

AVIGDOR, ELIM D' Engineer and communal worker (died in London Feb. 9, 1895) was the eldest son of Count Salamon Henri d'Avigdor and of Rachel, second daughter of Sir Isaac Lyon Goldsmid. He was educated at University College, LonHaving been don, and the University of London. articled to the engineer Hawkshaw, D'Avigdor in 1862 went first to Hull, then to Rangoon (Burma)



He superin connection with his professional work. vised the construction of railways in Syria and in Transylvania, and of water-works in Vienna. It was D'Avigdor's railway experience added

to his

interest in Palestine as chief of the Chovevi Zion Association which led him to contract in railway

work in Syria and to form the Tyrian ConstrucCompany. Gaining some experience in literary work in connection with "Vanity Fair," he bought

tion

the "Examiner." He subsequently brought out a paper called the "Yachting Gazette." Under the