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348 Averroism Avesta

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

half of the fourteenth century produced a new series. Ivalonymusb. Kalonymus, son of Mei'r of Aries (12771330), translated, in 1314, under the following titles, the Grand Commentaries on the " Organon" (jvjn),

the

New

Series

"

"

Physics

(j?3Dn), the "

Mctaphys-

ics "

(jnnn "inXC HD), and the treaof Trans- tises "Do Cuslo tt Mundo," "Generalations. tion and Corruption," "Meteors," "The Soul," and "The Letter on Union," etc. R. Samuel h. Judah b. Meshullam of Marseilles translated the Short Commentary on the " Nikomachean Ethics, "under the title nnon 'D, and the paraphrase of Plato's " Republic, " under the title of rUi"On njnon. Todros Todrosi of Aries translated in 1337, under the following titles, the commentaries on the "Topics" (rrnDXD), the "Sophisms" (nj?Dnn), the " Rhetoric " (fiytan), and " Poetics " (TE>n). In addition to these a crowd of other translators of uncertain date likewise devoted themselves to the study of the works of Averroes. Shem-Tob Isaac of Tortosa translated the commentary on the "Physics," and the treatise on the " Sovil " Jacob b. Shem-Tob, the

"First Analytics"; Judah ben Tallin Maimon, the "Physics." the treatises on "Heaven" and on "Generation " Moses ben Tahora b. Samuel b. Shudai the treatise on "Heaven"; Moses b. Solomon of Salon, the "Metaphysics"; Judah b. Jacob, books xi.-xix. on Animals " Solomon b. Moses Alguari, the trea;

"'



tise "

De Somno

The second

et Vigilia.

half of the fourteenth century

is the the Jews. There were no more translations, but scholars innumerable vied with one another in commenting on the commentaries and applying the teachings of those commentaries to theology. Levi ben Gerson of Bagnols (Gersonides) wrote such commentaries, as well as some upon the original works of Averroes, as, for instance, on the "Substantia Orbis," the treatise on the "Possibility of Union," etc.; Joseph Caspi, in the middle of the century, wrote a commentary upon Aristotle's " Ethics " and Plato's " PolIn 1344, Moses of itics," after Averroes' method. Narbonne (Messer Vidal) wrote a commentary on the "Possibility of Union," etc.; and in 1349 on the "Substantia Orbis," and on other physical treatises. The " Physics," the " Ethics," the comThe Golden mentary upon " Alexander of AphroAge of disias on the Intellect," underwent a Averroism. complete remodeling at his hands. As

golden age of Averroism

directly

mentioned



among

due

The ethical and

to

Averroism must be

rhetorical

work by Jeda-

"Behinat Olam" (Examination of the World), and his "Iggeret haHitnazelut" (Letter on Self -Exculpation), defending philosophy against the vehement attack of Solomon b. Adret; also Joseph Caspi's double commentaries on Maimonides' "Guide"; Levi ben Gerson's philosophical commentary upon the Pentateuch wherein the author admits the eternity of the universe, the natural gift of prophecy, original matter without form, and the impossibility of " Creation " and finally, Moses Narboni's commentary upon the "Guide." The fifteenth century, though still rich in producBoldtions of Averroism, gave signs of decadence. ness had vanished from the world of letters, and every author felt himself constrained to break a lance

yah Penini

(1261-1321), entitled

—



348

In 1455 Joseph ben Shem-Tob of Segovia commented on the "Ethics," according to his own statement, to supply Averroes' omissions; he likewise commented on the "Possibility of Union," and on the analysis of Alexander's Displaced book on the Intellect. His son Shemby Tob, as well as Moses Falaquera and Theology. Michael ha-Kohen, wrote Averroistic for religion.

toward the end of the century. Rome, the last representative of Averroism among Jews, wrote in 1485 a commentary treatises

Elia del Medigo, of "

" in 1492 a treatise on the on "Prophecy," and on various other works. Of other Averroistic writings there were the same Shem-Tob's commentary on the " Guide " Elia Abraham Shalom del Medigo's "Behinat ha-Dat" ben Isaac's theological and philosophical dissertations; and the "Miklal Yofi," by Menahem b. Abraham Bonfous of Perpignan. In the sixteenth century Averroism gave place to theology. People read and studied Averroes, but very evidently only to hunt out his weak points and

on the

Substantia Orbis



"Intellect,"





Isaac Abravanel, largely indebted as he was in his commentary on the " Guide " to A verroes, does not scruple to attack him frequently in his " Shamayim Hadashim " and other works. Abraham Bibago, who commented on Aristotle's "Analytica Posteriora, " abuses Averroism in his "Derek Emuna." Moses Almosnino, about 1538, comments on Al-Gazzali's "Happalat-ha-Filosofim" (Destruction

disprove him.

of the Philosophers), and uses it as a weapon against the Peripatetic philosophy. Many other, but more insignificant, writers essayed to drag the colossus to the ground, but the traces stamped by Averroes on Jewish literature are irremovable. Bibliography: Munk, in Dictionnaire ctes Sc-Unces PhUosoph. 1844-47, iii. 157 et seq.; idem, Melanges, Paris, 1859 Renan, Averroes et VAverroisme, Paris, 1866; Steinschneider, Jewish Literature, London, 1854; idem, Hebrllischc Uehersetzunuen, Berlin, 1895; J. Miiller, Averroes Philosophus, Leipsic, 1874 idem, Philosophieund Religion; ncn D~o, viii. 63 et seq. icnj tsin, ii. 4 et seq.





K.

I.

AVESTA

Br.

The

canonical book of the religious sect known as the Parsees, more frequently though less precisely called Zend-Avesta an inversion of the Pahlavi phrase " Avistak va Zand, " the Scriptures and the Commentary or the Law and Its Interpretation. The Avesta is the Zoroastrian Bible supplemented by the Pahlavi, or Middle Persian, writings, as the Hebrew Scriptures are by the Talmud. The Avesta has special claims upon the interest of Jewish scholars, there being certain points of similarity between the Avesta and the Old Jewish as well as the New Testament, points Interest, that are striking or close enough to call forth frequent comment. In the next place, the Avesta, as the sacred book of early Persia, must command attention because of the historical points of contact between the Jews and the Persians. Note especially such passages as the following Isa. xlv. 1, 13, 28; II Chron. xxxvi. 22, 23; Ezra i. 1-11 v. 13-17; vi. 1-15; and perhaps Ezek. viii. 16. See Persian Religion. -.

—





The Avesta represents the ancient priestly code of Magi for Zoroaster, or Zarathushtra, as his name

the is



called in the original texts, has stood in history as

the typical Magian, as the sage, priest, prophet, and