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THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

was transferrin! to Vienna. There, through the efforts of Ludwig August Frankl, the first Jewish institute for the education of the blind was founded in 1870. An institution for the training of rabbis, which at the end of the eighteenth century had already engaged the attention of the government, was finally opened in Vienna, 1894. In religious matters Austria has always been con-

The first introduction the service took place in Vienna, dermanx, the moving spirit of hoped to introduce the reforms servative.

any changes in where 31. L. Bieof

the congregation, of the Hamburg temple; but Mannheimer, who had himself participated in these services, felt that for Religious Vienna a more conservative spirit was Connecessary. The latter, therefore, limservatism. ited the reforms to the omission of

decorum

some Piyyutim, to a trained choir, to and to the introduction of a

in service,

German sermon.

This type of temple, dedicated

was introduced everywhere in the civilized parts of Austria, and also in G-alicia, where, in Tarnopol, Lemberg, and Brody, the cultured element of the community founded what was called a " Chorschul." From Brody this type of reform was even introduced to Odessa, where many people from Brody had settled. Secular education had made rapid progress after the decree of Joseph II., although, owing to the fact that the practise of medicine was the only field open for Jews through academic education, the students 1826,

could not be numerous. The events of 1848 increased this number. In 1851 the number of Jewish students in the high schools of Austria was 1 598 in 1857 they had increased to 2, 143. The increasing number of students in the secular schools drove the yeshibot out of existence and so the Talmudists of the old school, with the exception of those of Galicia, have almost completely disappeared. To the first part of the nineteenth century belong: Eleazar Fleckeles (d. 1826), rabbi of Prague Ephraim Zalman Margulies in Brody (d. 1828) Marcus Benedikt, district rabbi in Moravia (1753-1829) Jacob Ornstein, rabbi in Lemberg (d. 1839) Nahum Nehemiah Trebitsch, district rabbi in Moravia (1777-1842); Hirsch Chajes, rabbi in Zolkiev (d. 1855) Solomon Kluger in Brody (d. 1869) Marcus Wolf Ettinger (d. 1863) and Joseph Saul Nathansohn (d. 1875), both in Lemberg and Aaron Kornfe'ld in GoltsehJenikau (d. 1881). The Jewish scholars of a more modern type are so numerous that only the most prominent names can be quoted here. Among those who belong to the school of the Biurists must be mentioned Herz Homberg (1749-1841) and Peter Beer In the school of systematic scholars (1758-1838). The Z. Frankel (1801-75) deserves the first rank. Polish circle counts Nachman Krochmal (1789-1840), S. L. Rapoport (1790-1867), and Isaac Erter (d. The succeeding generation has Solomon 1851). ,

















(b. 1827) and S. H. Halberstamm (1832-1900). of the best-known writers of the present historOthers are: Leoical school is I. H. Weiss (b. 1815). pold Low (1811-75), M. Steinschneider (b. 1816), H. B. Fassel (1802-83), A. Jellinek (1821-94), S. I. KStmpf

Buber

One

(1815-93), Nehemias Briill (1843-91), David KaufFurther might be included the (1852-99).

mann

Austria Authentication

Italians I. S. Reggio (1784-1855), Joseph Almanzi (1801-60), and S. D. Luzzatto (1800-65), all of spent their life under Austrian dominion. Of prom-

whom

inent poets and authors those may first be mentioned who have written on Jewish subjects; viz., Leopold

Kompert (1822-86), Leo Herzberg-Frankel (b. 1827), Karl Emil Franzos (b. 1848), L. A. Frankl (1810-94), Moritz Rappaport (1808-80), Seligmann Heller (1831-90), Michael Klapp (d. 1888), J. L. Lederer (1808-76), and Moritz Hartmann (1821-73). The pianist Ignaz Jloscheles (1794-1870) and the actor Adolph Sonnenthal (b. 1834) are distinguished and to them may be added the regenerator of synagogue music, Solomon Sulzer (1804-90); the mathematician

Simon Spitzer 1826-87) the chess-player W. (



Steinitz

statesmen like Kuranda,Fischhof,ancl Winterstein; scientists like Jacob Fischel, an authority on psychiatry (d. 1892); the dermatologist Zeissl, and others, too numerous to mention, show how, in a comparatively short time, the Jews of Austria have (d. 1900)



risen to the level of their

Bibliography: For the the best source

is J.

non-Jewish fellow-citizens.

earliest period of the history treated

E. Soberer;

Die Rechtsverhaithisse der

Juden in den Deutseh-Oesterreiehischen Lflndern, Leipsio, 1901; [Joseph von Wertheimer] Die Juden in Oesterreieh StaiulpuuMe des Beehts und des Staatsviniheils, 2

Mm

(appeared anonymously) G. Wolt, Gexch. der 1876; Judentaufen in Oesterreieh, D. Kaufraann, Samson Wertheimer, der und Landesrabbiner, Vienna, 1888; idem, Urkundliches aus dem Leben Samson Wertheimer'*, Vienna, 1892; idem, Die Letzte Vertreibung der Juden aus Wien und Hire Voraeschichte, Vienna, 1889. A bibliography of the essays which appeared in periodicals treating; of the history of the Jews in Austria will be found in Zeit. fur die Gcsch. der Juden in Deutschland, ii. 136 et seq. vols., ib. 1842;

Juden in Wien, Vienna, Vienna, 1883: Oberhnffactor

D.

AUTHENTICATION"

OF

(Kiyyum, Ashsharta, Henpek)

DOCUMENTS

An

official cer-

tificate of

genuineness. This is either the result of actual litigation on the subject, in which case the decision of the court is the official authentication, or where the proper persons appear before a competent tribunal, which takes their testimony and officially authenticates the instrument for the purpose of preventing litigation concerning it. The use of authentication is well known in Talmudic law. Strict law does not require the authentication of an instrument in order to give it validity, because, according to Resh Lakish, the attestation of subscribing witnesses is equivalent to the testimony of those who have been examined in court (Git. da). The reason for this rule is obvious: there maj r be danger of fraud and forgery in the case of an instrument signed by the debtor, but such danger is far removed in the case of an instrument which is signed by two disinAn instrument is considered juterested witnesses. dicially authenticated (1) if the judges themselves recognize the handwritings of the subscribing witnesses; or (2) if the witnesses sign in the presence of the court; or (3) if the subscribing witnesses appear before the court and acknowledge their signatures, stating that they witnessed the transMethods action or (4) if other witnesses appear of Authen- and testify that they recognize the handwriting of the subscribing wittication. nesses or (5) if the court, after comparison of the signatures in issue with the signatures in at least two other instruments, reaches the conclusion that the signatures are genuine.