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64 — 'Arakin

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Aram

end the Halakot dealing with estimations put upon persons. The sixth chapter dix.

It gives

to be regarded as

an appen-

minute precepts relative

to assess-

is

ments in general, called "shum " tinction to "pjrt, and concerning

contradisdistraint for debts (D1K>, in

incurred by dedication. After this exhaustive treatment of the estimation of persons, chapters vii. and viii. give a fuller explanation of the estimation of consecrated land found in Lev. xxvii. 16, and in addition as in the Bible the Halakot concerning Herem ("devoted thing)," that is voted to be the irredeemable property of the sanctuary or of the priests (Lev. xxvii. 28). The ninth and last chapter consists chiefly of the regulations concerning the redemption in the jubilee year of landed property that has been sold (Lev. xxv. 25-34). These rules are given in this connection because they have points of contact with the valuation of a consecrated piece of ground. The Tosefta to this treatise, comprising five chapters, is of great value for the comprehension of the single articles of the Mishnah, as well The as for their composition. Thus ToTosefta. sef ta i. 1 illustrates the exegetical basis (Midrash) for the proposition in Mishnah i. 2; and, according to the reading of Tosefta iii. 1, the difficulty in Mishnah v. 1, which provides the Gemara 19a with much matter for discussion, is removed. This treatise of the Tosefta contains also a number of explanatory amplifications of the Mishnah, as well as many points not touched in the latter. The Tosefta also gives to some extent many a valuable intimation for distinguishing the older and the more recent constituent elements or Mishnah strata of the Mishnah. Beginning in the with the first chapter, a comparison of Light of the Mishnah 1-4 and the Tosefta 1-4 Tosefta. shows that of these paragraphs only 1 and 4 belong to the older Mishnah compilation, and that 2 and 3 emanate from a school later than Akiba. Similarly, the second chapter betrays the work of two redactors. The compilation of the maxima and the minima in this section is probably to be ascribed to Akiba, who was the first to attempt such an arrangement of the halakie material. To the later redaction, however, is to be attributed the discussion in Mishnah 1, between R. Likewise, Mishnah Mei'r and the Hakamim (sages). 4 and the second half of Mishnah 6 must be regarded

—

as later additions.'

The whole of the third chapter must be regarded as belonging to the older Mishnah compilation, with the exception, however, of the second half of Mish2, where " Eleazar [ben Shammua] " should be read instead of "Eliezer [ben Hyrcanus]." It is noteworthy that in this chapter (Mishnah 2) the gardens of Sebaste (Samaria) are represented as very fruitful, a characteristic which could apply only to the time previous to Bar Kokba. For this reason R. Judah in the Tosefta (ii. 8) speaks of the gardens of Jericho instead of those of Sebaste. The fourth chapter of the Mishnah seems to belong wholly to the more recent redaction. In the fifth chapter it is difficult to distinguish old and new. Here the beginning is derived from the time

nah

64

before Akiba, possibly even from the period during the existence of the Temple, or, at all events, not long after; but the second half of the very same Mishnah is of a much later date, whereas the Tosefta (iii. 2) preserves the old form of theHalakah, to which the Mishnah bears the relation of an explanation and Chapters vi.-ix. also contain various discussion.

compilations of Halakot, which were so much altered by the redactor that attempts to trace them back to their sources have been unsuccessful. In the present article an analysis of the Gemara, which comprises thirty-four pages, can be given only in brief outline. Starting from

The

the

Gemara.

word >3H

(" all ")

,

with which the

treatise begins, the discussion brings

into array nearly all tannaitic Halakot, to prove that this word is used to intimate that the tanna desires to include in the rule a class of subjects that otherwise would

commencing with that word,

have been excluded. This introduction to the treatise 'Arakin (pp. 2-4a) probably comes from the time of the Saboraim. Of importance are the elaborations of the Gemara on Mishnah i. 2, in regard to the sacrifices and gifts of the heathen (D"13J?) (pp. 5J-6J). In regard to the second chapter, special reference must be made to pp. 8J-13J, in which, along with explanations of the Mishnah, many details are given in regard to the construction of the calendar and to customs in the Temple service. The third chapter of the Gemara is the only one in the treatise in which haggadic material is treated Pages 15a to 17a contain admonitions and at length. precepts concerning "the evil tongue," in which it is urged that man must be careful of speech. Chapters iv. and v. contain chiefly elucidations and explanations of the corresponding Mishnayot. Basing itself on the Mishnah, chapter vi. gives many important regulations concerning compulsory auctions and the legal procedure in regard to them, and with regard to legal attachments (pp. 21i-24a). Chapter vii. is devoted to the regulations regarding the year of jubilee at a time when this Biblical institution is enforced (24a-27a).

Chapter viii. treats of the regulations governing landed estate devoted to the sanctuary, when the law of the jubilee year is no longer in force (27«-29a). The last chapter deals mainly with the laws for the sale and redemption of land and houses that have been sold, on which subject the Mishnah in the corresponding chapter contains only a few particulars. Bibliography Mordecai Eliezer b. David Weber, Erek Dal

(commentary), Jerusalem, 1885; treatise 'Araliin by

Latin translation of the Utrecht, 1690 (only a

Magnus Ronnow,

part printed). J. se.

L. G.

ARAM. — Biblical Data

The name

of a group of kindred tribes scattered over portions of Syria, Mesopotamia, and Arabia. It is not the name of a country or of a politically independent people for the Aramaic peoples were never all independent



Location, about 1110

at the same period; neither did they form a large independent state. They are mentioned by Tiglath-pileser I.,

b.c. (Schrader ing east of the Euphrates

"

K. B." also

i.

33),

as dwell-

by Shalmaneser

II.