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542 THE JEWISH E^'CYCLOPEDIA

Amsterdam

first it met with no sui-coss, but in course of time During the nilibiimte these abuses were remedied. of K. Saul's son. Jacob Moses Lowenstani, who was elected in ITSH), the emancipation of the Jews in

At

may be sjiid to have commenced. The new linns dcinaiided new lijrhts. III. The United Congregations from 1795 to 1900 .lllii'U;;li lie. lews ill .ViMslcnlam I'li joyed full rellj;ious freedom, their civil liberliis were materially restricted durini; the whole of the period described. By a decree of l(i:}2 every ordinary purOnly those actually persuit was closeil to them. taining to their relijrion were permitted; such as dealinj; in meat and other provisions, Hebrew printing aiwl publishing. They were also allowed to dispense drugs. The imiversities wotild perhaps have accorded degrees to Jews, but the Huf van Holland decreed (16.jt!) that no Jewish advocate might plead before the courts. The ojipressive ctlect of such statutes was felt more and more. When, therefore, the French took posses.sion of Amsterdam (179.5) many of the Jews there became imbued with revolutionary ideas, and founded an association called " Felix Libertate " (179.5). This " People's Society," as the e.i)ression then ran, became the soul of a movement to acquire civil rights for Jews. The first attempt was directed toward securing tlie right The to vote and to serve in the Citizens' Guard. chief movers in this matter were Jlo.ses Solomon Asser, Jacob Sasportas, and H. de H. Lemon, who labored zealously in the cause, both in speech and in writing. The pamphlets and newsCivil Dis- pa])er articles, for and against it, were nuraerou.s. Hut. strange to sjjy, they abilities, met with opposition within the Jewish camp, as well as outside of It in both congregations the rabbis and parnasim arrayed themselves in opposition more persistently than the members. Probably the full extent of the movr-tnent was not quite clear to them, and the parnasim, no doubt, feared a diminution of their autocratic power. But the "Felix Libertate." undismayed, petitioned the"Nationale V'ergaderiug " (National Assembly), asking that Jews be given equal rights with other citizens, and a commission was appointed to consider the matter. For eight days it was publicly discus.sed in the Assembly. Finally, a resolution was adopted declaring that Jews should possess equal rights with their fellow citizens (1795). These discussions, however, produced divisions in the Jewish congregations themselves. Jacob Moses Lowenstam, chief rabbi of the Ashkenazim (called Jacob Saul in official documents), and Daniel Acohcn de Azevedo of the Portuguese community, proposed to expel members of the "Felix Libertate " from their congregations. These, however, separated of their own accord, and formed a " new congregation, 'Adat Yeshurim." with Isaac Graanboom as rabbi (installed 17H7, died 1807). They erected a new synagogue, consecrated Sept. 27, 1799, and also purchased a cemeteiy in Overveen, near Haarlem. The strife attained large proportions, and every week during the years 1797 and 179H both sides published so-called "Discourses" in .Juda'o-German, which afford interesting contributions to the history of the time (see Roest, "Cat. Rosenth." pp. 70 and Holland



I



71).

many

Attempts at reconciliation were made from quarters, but for the time remained unsuc-

cessful.

Holland became a kingdom. Louis Bonaparte not only Siinctioned the emancipation of the Jews, but showed himself in all things their friend. Soon after his coronation in 18013. in order to bring about a reconciliation, he appointed a commissioli consisting of the Dutch jurist Jonas Daniel Meyer, Jonah

642

Rintel, and Jiidah Litwack, the la.st two of the new congregation. After many meetings and resolutions a compromise was devised and apThe King- proved by the king; at the .sjime time dom of a new royal statute for the senior Holland, congregations was announced. King Louis interested himself not only in the Amsterdam community, but also in the attairs of the .lews of all Holhind. to rigidate which he lie endeavored aiipointed an Ober t'onsistorium. likewise to raise the grade of instruction for Jewish children; he also formed two regiments, of S13 men each, made up exclusively of Jews; but they were disbanded on the incorporation of Holland with the French empire (1810), anJellierlands in 1.S15, like other members of his house, was friendly to the Jews. Soon after his coronation he ai>pointed a committee to regulate the relationsof the Jews to the slate. A law was passed (1!^14) concerning the " Israelietiscli Kerkgenootschap." and asacoiirl of the last resort in Jewish matters a " Hoofdeommissie tot de Zaken der Israelieten" was instituted. A further dicree (1817) required the congregations to maintain Jewish free schools for the |)oor. In literary matters likewise the congregation of Amsterdam developed great activity. Similar to the " Jleasselim " of Germany, several persons associated themselves for the study of Jewish literature underihenameof "Toelet." .Many volumes of poems and essjiys in Hebrew were |iublished by the sociTlie school "Sa'adat Bahurini," established ety. in 1708 by the chief rabbi. ,ryeli .ludah Kalisch. was in 18;i4 made a state school, under the name "Xederlandsch Isnu-lietisch Semiiiarium," for the training of rabbis and teachers. Steps were Education- also taken for tin- spread of culture al 'Work, among the Jewish jiopulation. The

principal workers were Moses Lemans (born at Naarden 1785. died at Amsterdam 1832), Samuel Mulder (1792-lS(i2i. and the best known of them Gabriel Polak (!8o:3-18(i9). They exercised great influence u]ion the development of the Jews of Amsterdam, and furnished them with Jewish school-books and translations of the Bible and the various prayer-books into the Dutch language. After the death of Jacob Moses Lowenstam (isl.5). his son-in-law, Samuel Berenstein. became chief rabbi of the German congregation. He. too, exerted himself in behalf of progress. When he died (1838) the chief rabbinat(^ was not lilled immediately, but a rabbinical collegi' (bet din) was entrusted with the .guidance of all religious affairs. The members were A. J. Susjin (died 1S(51). J. M. Content (died 1898), B. S. Berenstein (later chief rabbi at The Hague), J. S.

Hirsch (died 1870),

J.

D.

Wynkoop

(since January,

The Portuguese congregation, upon the death De Azevedo in 18"22. likewise ajiiiointed no chief

1871).

of

rabbi, but a bet din. consisting of Jacob de Elieser Ferares(died 1852), Solomon de Abraham Acoen Pcreira (died 1828). Raphael Jlontezinos (died 18(56), Isaac Mendesde Sola (ilied 1849). Aaron JlendesChu(in 1860 chief rabbi of Cura(-ao), and David Lopez Cardozo (died 1890), Aaron Vas Diaz (died 1885), .lacob Lopez Cardozo (until 1873), Jacob Men-

maceiro

des Chumaccii-o (died 1900). I. Van J. Palache(from 1885), and A. R. Pereira (from Is.So). In the Portuguese community the reorganization of public affairs was by no means as thorough as in the German; moreover, with a few exceptions, they took less iivterest in

Jewish

literary matters.