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OSW of the clergy of Berne, on this account. But herein he was only a representative of the spirit of the age. The first half of the eighteenth century was a time of doctrinal relaxation, and of declining spiritual earnestness, throughout the whole protestant church. In Switzerland this tendency was represented by other two celebrated divines—Werenfels of Basle, and John Alphonse Turretin of Geneva—who, with Ostervald, have been called the Swiss trifolium, or the Swiss triumvirate. Still Ostervald was full of zeal and indefatigable labours in the service of religion, as he understood it. He wrought so many changes upon the church of Neufchâtel, its liturgy, psalmody, catechisms, and Bible-version, that he has been called its second reformer. He carried on for many years a theological lecture for the benefit of young men of education in the city, out of which sprang several of his theological works. His writings obtained for him the esteem and correspondence of several of the leading bishops of the Church of England, and they were even valued by Fénelon and other dignitaries of the Church of Rome.—P. L.  OSWALD,, born in the county of Merckenstein in Austria in 1511, was educated at Ingoldstadt, Leipsic, and Basle, where he studied under Sebastian Munster. He was professor at Memmingen in Swabia, at Tübingen, and at Freiburg, where for twenty-seven years he taught mathematics and Hebrew. He died in 1579. He wrote several learned works, including commentaries on some of the books of the Bible, and translated the New Testament into Hebrew.—D. W. R.  OSWALD,, whose name is entitled to honourable mention as a composer and an editor of Scottish national music, first appears as a teacher of dancing at Dunfermline. He probably held the office of "music-master of Dunfermline and precentor," which was advertised as vacant 12th of January, 1736. We find at least, that shortly before that time Oswald had removed to Edinburgh, where he taught both music and dancing. After remaining in Edinburgh for a few years, he left Scotland in 1741, and set up a music shop in St. Martin's Churchyard, London, where he seems to have remained the rest of his life. On the occasion of his leaving Edinburgh, a poetical epistle addressed to him appeared in the Scots Magazine for October, 1741; it contains some interesting particulars regarding his compositions, and probably came from the pen of Allan Ramsay. In January, 1761, Oswald was appointed chamber composer to his majesty. His decease has not been recorded.—E. F. R.  OTFRID, also called OTTFRIED, OTTFRIDE, OTFRIDUS &c., a German Benedictine monk, born about 870. He wrote one of the earliest extant specimens of the German language, which he is regarded as having greatly helped to form. According to some he completed a German grammar begun by Charlemagne; but he is most celebrated for a poetic version of the chief events of the gospel history, intended to supersede the profane songs then in vogue. His pieces were at one time popular. They have been published by M. Flacius Illyricus, in his Catalogus Testinm, 1571, and by Schilter in the Thesaurus Antiquitatum Teutonicarum, 1727-28. The work was dedicated to Louis II., and is considered a precious monument of old German literature; as regards the history of the language it is invaluable. Otfrid studied under Rabanus Maurus, and wrote also in prose.—B. H. C.  OTHER, ONTHERE, or OTTAR, one of the earliest of arctic discoverers, was a Norwegian of the ninth century, who being engaged in the whale fisheries made observations in the course of his journeys, which he afterwards repeated to Alfred, king of England, and which that king inserted in his Saxon translation of Orosius. Other declared to the king that he abode in a region called Halgoland, northernmost of all the northmen, on those lands northwards against the West Sea, and that to find out how long that land stretched to the north he made a voyage towards the pole. He was a wealthy man at home, yet disdained not the service of the wise king to whose country he had come on some commercial enterprise. The account of his arctic travels offers an interesting and authentic picture of the manners and political state of the north. Hakluyt and Purchas have included him in their collections, and Mr. Sharon Turner gives an extract concerning him from Alfred's Orosius.—R. H.  OTHMAN, or more correctly OSMAN, founder of the Ottoman dynasty, was the son of Erthoghrul or Orthoghrul, and born in Bithynia in 1259. On the death of his father he became the head or chief of his race in Asia Minor, whither the family had emigrated some years before. Othman was already known for his courage, and oriental writers have much to say not only of this, but of his romantic attachment to the fair Malkhatoon. On his accession to authority, his power was increased, partly by a territory which had belonged to the realm of Masud II., whose dominions were divided among his generals, and partly by encroachments upon rival chiefs, but principally by spoliation of the Greek empire. By 1300 his rule extended in the north-west to Jeni Shehr, between Brusa and Isnik. Notwithstanding his warlike disposition, he was at peace from 1291 to 1298, and his next war is ascribed to the provocation of certain Turkish emirs. His reputation for justice much promoted the consolidation of his power. About 1299 he coined money bearing his own image, and was mentioned in the public prayers; but some, as Von Hammer, question whether he ever adopted these marks of royalty. It was now his ambition to govern the entire peninsula, and a long and cruel struggle ensued, which continued till after his death. He gained some successes over his chief rival in Caramania, but was most anxious to encroach upon the Greek territory, and to this he directed special attention during the last twenty-six years of his life. In 1299 he murdered his uncle for opposing his ambitious projects, but his success was thought to be his justification. His son Orkham reduced Brusa in 1326, and Othman, who died soon after, was buried in that city. He left a book of maxims for the guidance of his son. The title of sultan was never given him in his lifetime. His descendants still govern the Ottoman empire.—B. H. C.  OTHMAN,, the third khalif after Mahomet, two of whose daughters he married, and was hence called by a name which signifies "possessor of the two lights." One of the apostles of Islam, he is one of the four whose names are always placed after those of God and Mahomet in all mosques; occupies a place among the saints and at the head of the martyrs; and is named in the service at all the principal mosques. The sacerdotal dignity of Othman is never questioned. He was an early convert to Mahomet, to whom he was related, and whom he followed in his flight; and he was one of the six whom the prophet ordained to be the depositaries of his power. His right to the khalifate was unsuccessfully contested by Ali, and he was proclaimed twenty-three years after the Hegira. During his reign Khorassan and other provinces were added to the empire. After reigning about eleven years a conspiracy was formed, of which Ayesha, the prophet's widow, was a chief promoter, and which led to his murder when he had reigned twelve years. He was very old when he died. He was the first to procure an authentic copy of the Koran. Rashidi, a Persian poet, turned into verses a collection of apophthegms, of which Othman is the reputed author.—B. H. C.  OTHO,, the Roman Emperor, born. 32, was in his youth one of the favourite courtiers of Nero. He was married to Poppæa Sabina, afterwards the wife of Nero, and in order to separate him from her he was sent by the emperor in . 58 to govern the province of Lusitania, which he administered with credit during the ten years ensuing until the death of Nero. On the revolt of Galba in Spain, Otho at once acknowledged him as emperor, and accompanied him to Rome, where he himself enjoyed an extensive popularity. An influential party now urged Galba to adopt Otho as his successor in the empire. Galba, however, disliking the profligate character of Otho, designated L. Piso as the future emperor. Disappointed in his ambitious views, Otho raised a conspiracy among the soldiers, who hoped to find in him a second Nero. Galba and Piso were murdered, and Otho proclaimed emperor, January 10th,. 69. Although obliged to conciliate by various concessions the favour of the soldiers, Otho showed a disposition to govern with moderation and prudence. His personal enemies he treated with clemency, and evinced more energy and talent than had been expected from him. He was acknowledged as emperor by the legions in Africa and the East, as well as by those of Illyricum and Pannonia. Vitellius, however, had been proclaimed emperor at Cologne, January 3,. 69, by the army of the Rhine. The legions in Gaul, Britain, and Spain also for the most part declared for Vitellius, but his main strength lay in the armies of Germany, which under his generals, Cœcina and Valens, were proceeding to the invasion of Italy. Otho left Rome about the middle of March, after quelling some disturbances there, and joined his army in Northern Italy. His troops gained some successes in the neighbourhood of Placentia; but Otho, contrary to the advice of his ablest commanders, resolved on fighting a decisive battle. His forces sustained a complete defeat in <section end="625Zcontin" />