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LIT LITTROW,, afterwards , a distinguished astronomer, was born at Bischof-Teinitz in Bohemia, on the 13th of March, 1781, and died at Vienna on the 30th of November, 1840. He completed his education at the university of Prague, served for a short time in the army, and in 1803 became tutor in the family of Count Rénard, a Silesian nobleman. He occupied his leisure in the study of science, and especially of astronomy, in which his reputation rose so high as to cause his being appointed successively professor of astronomy in the university of Cracow in 1807, and in that of Kasan in 1810; co-director of the observatory of Buda in 1816; and finally in 1821, professor of astronomy and director of the observatory of Vienna. In 1837 he received letters of nobility. In the conduct of observatories he was specially distinguished by the talent of skilful management, and in his capacity of professor, by that of clear and efficient instruction. He wrote a long series of papers on astronomical and mathematical subjects, besides systematic treatises of high reputation on astronomy, analytical geometry, and algebra. He was succeeded in the chair of astronomy at Vienna, and the directorship of the observatory, by his son, —born at Kasan on the 18th July, 1811—who still holds these offices with no less distinction than his father.—W. J. M. R.  LIUTPRANDO or LUITPRAND, sometimes called , bishop and historian, born probably at Pavia (though by some accounted a Spaniard) towards the commencement of the tenth century; died not before 970. His father, whose honourable character though not his name is recorded by his son, was much beloved by Hugo, king of Italy; and this royal favour was inherited by the son. On the fall of King Hugo, Berengarius II. employed Liutprando as secretary, and sent him as ambassador to the Emperor Constantine Porphyrogennitus. Having become obnoxious to his royal master, he went about 958 an exile into Germany, and there composed that history of his own times which has survived to ours. When in 961 Berengarius in his turn was deposed by Otho I., Liutprando returned to Italy; was soon after consecrated to the see of Cremona; and in 963, at Rome, took part in the council of bishops which deposed John XII. In 968 he was sent for the second time as ambassador to Constantinople, to demand the daughter of Nicephorus Phocas in marriage for his master's son; but his mission was ill received; and after a residence of four months at that capital he returned to Italy, and enriched his contemporaneous memoirs with an account of his embassage far from flattering to the foreign court. A valuable edition of his works was published at Antwerp in 1640, and includes copious notes and a dissertation on the Diptychon Toletanum.—C. G. R.  LIVERPOOL,. See.  LIVERSEEGE,, was born at Manchester in 1803. Weak and deformed from infancy, he was treated with great harshness by his father, and owed what instruction he received to the kindness of an uncle. Unable to join in the rough sports of boys of his own age he taught himself to draw, and as he grew towards manhood acquired sufficient skill to paint portraits, and thus secure a livelihood. His first exhibited paintings were of "Banditti," at the Manchester exhibition of 1827. These he followed by others from the novels of Sir Walter Scott. But feeling his deficient technical culture, he now (1828) visited London, where he obtained admission to the studios of painters, drew in the British Museum, and copied the old masters at the British Institution. He also applied for admission as a student at the Royal Academy, but was told that his application was informal, and did not apply again. After a year or more thus employed, Liverseege returned to Manchester. With increased technical knowledge, his pictures displayed much more of self-reliance and originality, better colour, more force of character, and a more definite purpose. They at once became popular, and were every year more and more sought after. In the Royal Academy and British Institution exhibitions of 1831 his pictures, though only of cabinet size, were among the leading attractions. Stimulated by success, he laid himself out for greater achievements; but he had always been ailing, his health suddenly broke down, and he died January 13th, 1832, when only in his twenty-ninth year. Liverseege painted most from books, his favourite authors being Shakspeare, Scott, and Cervantes, and his best pictures from these—"Christopher Sly and the Hostess;" "Isabella and the Black Dwarf;" and "Don Quixote in his Study." But he also painted original subjects, of which "The Recruit," and a "Cobbler reading Cobbett's Register" were perhaps the most popular. Had he lived longer he would probably have been encouraged by his growing popularity to work more in this line, for which his peculiar humour seemed best adapted, and in which he had exactly caught the public taste. Nearly all his finished pictures have been engraved in mezzotint of a uniform size, and published in a collected as well as a separate form.—J. T—e.  LIVIA,, a Roman empress, was the daughter of Livius Drusillus Claudianus, and was born 56-54. She was married to Tiberius Claudius Nero, to whom she bore two sons, Drusus Germanicus and Tiberius. But Augustus was so captivated with her beauty that he forcibly took her from her husband, and repudiating his own wife, married Livia in her twentieth year. His attachment to her continued undiminished to the close of his life, and she exercised great influence over him. Augustus adopted her two sons for his own. The elder, Drusus, died in his youth. The younger succeeded him on the throne. Livia died. 29.—J. T.  LIVINEIUS,, the Latinized name of Jean Lievens, called Gandensis, was born in Belgium in 1546, and studied at Ghent, Cologne, and Louvain. His uncle, archdeacon at Liege, invited him to that city and made him canon, and soon after took him to Rome, where he helped to edit the edition of the Vatican Septuagint, which appeared in 1587. Lievens translated into Latin various works of Greek writers, especially fathers of the church. He died at Antwerp of apoplexy in 1599.—B. H. C.  LIVINGSTONE,, LL.D., D.C.L., an eminent missionary and African traveller, was born in 1817 at Blantyre on the Clyde. His grandfather, originally a small farmer, had migrated from Ulva to the Blantyre works, where he procured employment for himself and his children. Dr. Livingstone's father afterwards settled as a tea-dealer in Hamilton, where for the last twenty years of his life he was deacon of an independent church. His circumstances were narrow, and at the age of ten David Livingstone entered the factory as a piecer. A strong love of knowledge was already awake in him. Part of his first week's wages was devoted to the purchase of Ruddiman's Rudiments, and after the day's toil was over the lad pursued the study of Latin at an evening class. As he grew up he read much, especially scientific works and books of travel. His home-training was a carefully religious one. The desire early dawned within him of becoming a pioneer of christianity in China; and with this object he resolved on obtaining a medical education. Livingstone had no patron, and owed everything to himself. Promoted to cotton-spinning in his nineteenth year, he placed a book on a portion of his spinning-jenny, and studied amid the roar of machinery. By working in the summer he was enabled in the winter to attend the medical and Greek classes of Glasgow university, as well as the theological lectures of Dr. Wardlaw. Admitted a licentiate of the Faculty of Physicians and Surgeons at Glasgow, and forming a connection with the London Missionary Society, he found the opium war in China thwart his hopes of usefulness in that empire. Directing his views towards Africa, and after a theological training in England under the auspices of the London Missionary Society, he left Britain for Cape Town in 1840, and remained in Africa till 1856, labouring among the natives as a medical missionary, and making his great geographical explorations and discoveries. His first station was in the Bechuana country at Kuruman, seven hundred miles from Cape Town, where, and at Mabotso chiefly, he remained in preparatory labours, and associated with other missionaries, until 1845, marrying in 1844 the daughter of Mr. Moffat, the well-known missionary and founder of the station. From 1845 to 1849 he laboured at Choruane and Kolobeng. Here he heard from the natives of Lake Ngami, and starting on the 1st of June, 1849, in the company of Messrs. Oswald and Murray, and skirting the great Kalahari desert, on the 1st of August he reached Lake Ngami—then for the first time seen by Europeans. In 1850, accompanied by Mr. Oswald, he left Kolobeng a second time, and proceeding up the country in a north-easterly direction, made the most fruitful of his discoveries—that of the great river Zambesi, flowing in the centre of the continent, a geographical fact never suspected before. In the beginning of June, 1852, following the new clue thus presented to him, he started, from Cape Town, on the greatest and most celebrated of his journeys. It occupied him four years, during which he travelled through mostly unknown regions, from the southern 