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GUI Others," recommending moderation. On account of his attachment to the royal cause, he was deposed in 1651 from his position in the university by five commissioners of General Monk's army. He afterwards resided at Aberdeen, in a private station, till his death in 1657. Dr. Guild was the author of a "Harmony of the Prophets concerning Christ's Coming;" "Moses Unveiled, or the types of Christ in Moses explained," a work often reprinted; explications of the book of Revelation and of the Song of Solomon; and several works against popery. He was a munificent benefactor to Aberdeen, and left his library to the university of St. Andrews.—G. BL.  GUILLEMIN,, a distinguished French botanist, was born at Pouilly-sur-Sâone, in the canton of Seurre, on 20th January, 1796, and died at Montpellier on 15th January, 1842. In 1812 he became a pupil of an apothecary at Dijon; and after remaining two years in that city he proceeded to Geneva, where he became acquainted with De Candolle. He became after this very ardent in the study of botany, and made many botanical excursions. In 1820 he settled in Paris, and along with M. Achille Richard took charge of the botanical library and herbarium of M. Benjamin Delessert. In 1827 he was appointed botanical assistant in the Paris museum of natural history. He published many papers on descriptive botany, as well as on organography and vegetable physiology. Among these may be noticed his papers on the hybridity of plants and on pollen. He published, in conjunction with Richard and Perrottet, a flora of Senegambia. He also gave an account of the vegetables of the Society Islands, and especially of Tahiti. For five years he was chief editor of Ferussac's Bulletin Universel, and for three years professor of botany in the Horticultural Institution at Fremont, whose annals he enriched with a treatise on botany and vegetable physiology. In 1833 he originated the Archives de Botanique, a work which was afterwards incorporated with the ''Ann. des Sciences Nat''. In 1838 Guillemin was charged by the minister of commerce and agriculture to investigate the culture and preparation of tea as pursued in Brazil, and to bring plants to France. Accordingly, he went to Rio Janeiro, and returned in a year with one thousand five hundred tea plants. For his services he was rewarded with the decoration of the legion of honour. He also published "Icones Plantarum Australasiæ." His herbarium was presented to the cabinet of natural history in Dijon.—J. H. B.  GUILLIM,, nominal author of the "Display of Heraldry," was born in Herefordshire about 1565, and studied at Brazennose college, Oxford. He afterwards became a member of the Society of the College of Arms, and in 1617 was promoted to the office of rouge-croix pursuivant of arms. He died, May 7, 1621. The well-known heraldic work, which was published by him in 1610, folio, is attributed by Anthony Wood to Barkham, chaplain to Archbishop Bancroft, who gave the manuscript to Guillim, and allowed him to publish it in his own name, with some trifling additions.—G. BL.  GUILLOTIN,, a French physician, born at Saintes in 1738, was connected with the jesuits in his earlier years, but afterwards left their service and removed to Paris, where he studied with distinction under Professor Petit. Having taken his degree, and won additional honour in his examinations, he speedily obtained an extensive practice in the capital; and when Mesmer gave to the world his theories on animal magnetism, Guillotin was included in the scientific commission appointed by Louis XVI. to investigate the alleged discoveries. The heavings of political opinion which issued in the Revolution, found him prepared to vindicate popular rights. His "Petition des Citoyens," in which he claimed for the tiers etat a larger share in the legislation, was one of the influential publications of the day. He was secretary of the electoral assembly, and one of the deputies of the states-general. But he is chiefly remembered as the person who proposed the use of the guillotine in capital punishments. The instrument now bears his name, but he was not the inventor of it, and recommended its introduction from motives of humanity, because it inflicted a speedier and easier death than the sword or axe. He subsequently withdrew from political life, resumed his professional practice, and founded the Academie de Medecine. He died in 1814.—W. B.  GUINAND,, a self-taught optician, was born at Corbatière, near Chaux-les-Fonds, in 1748, and died at Brenets in Neufchâtel, on the 13th of February, 1824. He was the son of a joiner, and was brought up to the trade of a clockmaker; but by industry and perseverance, unaided by scientific knowledge, he succeeded in discovering, and putting in practice for the first time on the continent of Europe, the art of manufacturing large flint-glass discs for the object-glasses of astronomical telescopes—an art which had previously been confined to England. His lenses were used in the telescopes of Lalande. He was for some time a partner of Fraunhöfer, who had made, independently, the same discovery.—W. J. M. R.  GUINTER or GUINTHER,. See.  GUISCARD,, one of the most remarkable scions of a very remarkable race, was the sixth son of Tancred of Hauteville, a valvassor or banneret of the middle order of private nobility in the diocese of Coutances in Lower Normandy. Tancred had twelve sons, of whom ten at various times quitted their native land for the sunny clime of southern Italy. There a struggle for the mastery was going on in which were severally engaged the Italian princes, the Byzantine emperor, the Saracen masters of Sicily, and certain Norman knights who had settled in the country on their way back from a pilgrimage to the Holy Sepulchre. Rainulf, one of the latter, having become count of Aversa, his court became a centre of attraction to many of his countrymen. Thither three of Tancred's sons, named Drogon, Humfrey, and William, directed their course, and ere long, brave adventurers as they were, they acquired both fame and fortune. William especially distinguished himself, and with his iron arm (Bras-de-fer was his cognomen) wrested Apulia from the domination of the Greeks. Success like this excited the hostility of neighbouring powers, and a formidable league of the pope and the emperors both of the West and the East was headed by Leo IX. Ere the league took effect, Drogon and William Bras-de-fer being both dead, Humfrey received the welcome and potent aid of his half-brother Robert, surnamed Guiscard or Wiscard, a Norman epithet signifying cunning man. Robert was tall, strong, active, and graceful; had eyes sparkling with courage and intelligence, and a voice that inspired terror or encouragement according as it sounded in the ears of friend or foe. At the battle of Civitella (June 18, 1053) Pope Leo was taken prisoner, and the league he had formed was dissolved. Treated respectfully by his captors, his holiness found it would be to his interest to make them his friends, which he could do at small cost by formally bestowing on them the territory they had taken from his recent ally the Greek emperor. He therefore gave them a solemn investiture, as vassals of St. Peter, of all the country in Apulia which they had conquered, and all of Calabria which they might thereafter conquer. The hint was not thrown away upon Robert Guiscard, who in the course of a few years pushed his conquests to the furthest verge of Italy. On Humfrey's death Robert assumed the guardianship of his two children, and became virtually count of Apulia. In 1059, when he received the consecrated standard of Rome as gonfaloniere of the church from the hands of the pontiff himself, he styled himself thus:—"I, Robert, by the grace of God and of St. Peter, duke of Puglia and Calabria, and hereafter of Sicily." This proudly-anticipated conquest was reserved for another and younger brother of Robert, the illustrious Roger Guiscard, who had greatly assisted Robert in his later conquests. Robert meanwhile continued his conquests on the mainland, and his name became a terror to his enemies. His nephews, the rightful heirs to Apulia, being in Salerno when he took it by siege, fled from his wrath to Constantinople, where they lived long in obscurity. In 1084 Robert rescued that great but haughty priest, Pope Gregory VII., from the hands of the detested enemy of the papacy, the Emperor Henry IV. Gregory, flying from the carnage and desolation of his capital, took refuge with his proud vassal, now become his protector, at Salerno. Previously to this Robert, had conducted an expedition against Constantinople which had failed. Yet in 1085 he defeated the combined fleets of Greece and Venice, and he was preparing for a second invasion of the Greek empire the same year, when he died in Corfu in the seventieth year of his age. The ship containing his remains was lost on the coast of Italy, but his corpse was recovered, and the heart deposited at Otranto, the body at Venusia. His second son, Roger, succeeded to his title and authority, but attained to no other distinction. Bohemond, the eldest son, will be found noticed under that name.—R. H.  GUISCHARD,, perhaps better known by the name of , was a native of Magdeburg, where he was born in 1724. He studied at Halle, Marburg, Herborn, and Leyden, theology, ancient literature, and <section end="793Zcontin" />