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FIL against the errors which then prevailed. Remarkable among others is the seventh chapter, on the evils of permanent armies. The third book is devoted to criminal jurisprudence, first with respect to the guarantees of truth and justice in judicial inquiry, then to the penal system and the classification of crimes; the whole being an eloquent pleading in favour of humanity against the legal iniquities of the middle ages. In the fourth book, starting from the principle that the mere dread of punishment is a false foundation of social order, and that the fountain-head of civilization is the development of moral virtue in the inner man, he unfolds the subject of education in relation to both intellect and manners, and to private and public interference in the matter. In the fifth book, carrying out the same principle in the higher sphere of the relations existing between legislation and religion, he begins with a historical retrospect of the religions of the past and of their effects on society—a topic which unfortunately closes the work, as a premature death prevented his completing it. From the programme he has left of the matters which were to follow, we see that he intended to speak of the civilizing influence of christianity, and of the laws which ought to be directed to preserve it pure from superstition and clerical ambition: while, in the sixth and seventh books, he purposed to expound his views on private property and the organization of the family. He was also thinking of embodying in another work a universal theory of the metaphysics of science, when a sudden malady put an end to his wonderful activity of heart and intellect at the early age of thirty-seven. Filangieri had, by his writings and his love of humanity, excited the admiration of the greatest men of his age, among whom was Franklin; whilst for his personal qualities, as a husband, a father, and a citizen, he was universally esteemed by his countrymen. His death was felt as an immense loss to science and to the cause of mankind by all civilized nations. His great work was translated into most European languages. He died before the horrors of reaction, consequent on the French revolution, broke out in Naples, and was thus spared the pain of witnessing the violent end of his best friends, Pagano, Cirillo, &c., and probably saved from a similar fate.—His son, was born in 1783. Owing to the persecutions of 1799, he was obliged to leave Naples, and went to France to serve under Napoleon. He was made general by Murat in 1815. In 1820 he sided with the Bourbons, was persecuted again, but was reconciled with the court when Ferdinand II. became king. In 1848 he took the reactionary side, bombarded Messina, and in the subsequent year entirely subdued the Sicilian insurgents. He has ever since been an instrument of the Neapolitan reaction.—A. S., O.  FILASTRE or FILLASTRE,, a celebrated French prelate, was born in 1347 or 1348, and died at Rome in 1428. He early won himself a great reputation, and took part with the pope against the French court in the quarrel at the beginning of the fifteenth century. This procured him the favour of the Vatican, and he was accordingly made a cardinal-priest by John XXIII. He became very serviceable in helping to abolish the schism which at that time disgraced the papacy. Filastre was one of those who cultivated the learning which, derived from the classical times, was then beginning to relieve Europe from the gloom of the dark ages. He was a good Grecian and geographer, translated some books of Plato, and commented on the text of Ptolomæus.—R. M., A.  FILELFO,, a distinguished Italian philologist, was born at Tolentino, near Ancona, on the 25th of July, 1398. He entered the university of Padua; studied jurisprudence, eloquence, and philosophy; and at the age of eighteen was called to the chair of belles-lettres. In 1417 he was elected to the chair of Greek literature in Venice, where his lectures were attended by the most learned men of Italy. Subsequently appointed secretary of the Venetian legation at Constantinople, he had the advantage of becoming the pupil of the celebrated Hellenist John Grisolora, whose daughter Teodora he married in 1427. In 1425 Filelfo was elevated by Paleologus to the dignity of his ambassador to the court of Sigismond, king of Hungary, whence he repaired to Poland as imperial minister to assist at the marriage of King Wladislas. On his return to Constantinople he resumed his philological studies with renewed zeal and energy. In 1427 he revisited Venice, whither he had been called by the senate to deliver lectures in the Greek language. Compelled by the plague to leave that city he went to Bologna, where he was enthusiastically received, and appointed to the chair of eloquence and philosophy; but having taken up arms against the papal authority, he was obliged to remove to Florence, where he explained and commented on Dante's Divina Commedia in the church of Santa Maria del Fiore. Unfortunately Filelfo's acrimonious disposition created him powerful enemies; and his ingratitude to the family of the Medici, by whom he had been loaded with honours and wealth, alienated from him many of his warmest admirers. Poggio, Niccoli, and Ambrogio Camaldolense, were his formidable opponents on literary matters. It is asserted by Tiraboschi, that Filelfo hired a Greek sailor to murder Cosimo de Medici, but no farther proof remains of such a perfidy than an allegation extorted from the Greek by horrible tortures. Invited to Milan by Filippo Maria Visconti, a great patron of learning, Filelfo accepted the invitation in 1440, and was received with the greatest demonstrations of reverence and admiration. Extravagant in his way of living, and careless of his resources, he had often occasion to write to princes and patrons asking assistance, which granted, he was soon as needy as before. In 1450 Pope Nicolas V., and Alfonso, king of Naples, received him with distinction, and conferred on him many honours. About that time he began a poem entitled "La Sforziade," in honour of Francesco Sforza, but only eight books had been completed when that prince died in 1458. By the loss of his benefactor, Filelfo was reduced to the greatest misery, but did not therefore abate his ardour in literary pursuits. Sixtus IV. at length came to his aid, and appointed him to the chair of moral philosophy, in which he attracted crowds from all parts of Italy. Having left Rome on account of the plague, he entreated Lorenzo de Medici to grant him an asylum; and that prince, forgetting the past, abrogated all the edicts against Filelfo, and elected him to the professorship of Greek literature. All Filelfo's works are written in Latin and Greek, and he always expressed the greatest contempt for the Italian language, though already boasting the works of Dante, Boccacio, Petrarch, and Villani. His commentaries on Petrarch clearly demonstrate that he knew but little of the language in which Petrarch wrote. Filelfo has left numerous comments on the works of Aristotle and Plutarch, besides a great number of treatises and dissertations on some of the minor Greek and Latin writers. Filelfo had attained the advanced age of eighty-three years, when, exhausted by the fatigues incurred on his last journey from Rome to Florence, he died on the 31st of July, 1481.—A. C. M.  FILESAC,, a French theologian, who flourished in the sixteenth century. He was professor of classics and dialectics at the college of La Marche, and was in 1583 nominated procurator of the Gallic nation, and dean of the Sorbonne. He rendered important services to the university of Paris. He is chiefly known from his connection with Giordano Bruno, and with Edmond Richer. As rector of the university he presided at the famous "discussion of Pentecost," 1586, when Bruno and Henneguin attacked the doctrines of Aristotle. After the death of Henri IV., he condemned the views of his old colleague Richer, the champion of Gallican liberties.—J. W. S.  FILHOL,, French engraver, born in 1759, is chiefly known by his valuable "Cours élémentaire de Peinture, ou Galerie complète du Musée Napoleon," 10 vols. royal 8vo, 1804-14, and to which Madame Filhol added a supplementary volume in 1827. Filhol also prepared a "Concours Decennial, ou collection gravée des ouvrages de peinture, sculpture, architecture et medailles," in ten parts, 4to, Par. 1812-13. Nagler gives a list of his plates. Filhol died May 5, 1812.—J. T—e.  FILICAJA,, born of a noble family at Florence, on the 3rd of December, 1642. His father, a person of more than ordinary talent, gave him an elementary education, and then sent him to the university of Pisa, where, under the tutorship of Angelo Fabroni, he highly distinguished himself as a classical scholar. His excessive love of poetry made him neglect the study of the law, to which he was destined; and having completed his university curriculum, he retired to a beautiful villa, near Florence, where he devoted himself exclusively to literary pursuits. His modesty, however, might have deprived Italy of his literary productions, had he not met with well merited encomiums from such high personages as the Emperor Leopold, John II. of Poland, and Christina, queen of Sweden, to whom he inscribed most of his poetical pieces. This princess honoured Filicaja with her intimate friendship and unbounded confidence; and knowing how limited were his means, she undertook to have his numerous children educ ted according to the 