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BIR in the Finsbury and Islington dispensaries. One of his earliest works was intended as an introduction to the physical sciences for medical students, and was entitled "Elements of Natural philosophy." This work has gone through several editions. In 1844 he published a work on "Urinary Deposits, their Diagnosis and Treatment." This work brought him into considerable notice as a practitioner of medicine, and contained a large amount of original research. He was a very constant contributor to the medical periodicals, and wrote several papers in the Guy's Hospital Reports, the most Important of which are the following—"On Cystic Oxide," 1836; "On the Chemical Nature of Mucous and Purulent Secretions," 1838; "On Poisoning by Charcoal Vapour," 1849; "On Kiestine," 1840; "Report of Cases treated by Electricity," 1841; "On Urinary Deposits and Calculi," 1842; "Report of Cases of Diseases of Children," 1845. His various labours and large practice at last told upon a feeble constitution, and he sunk from disease of the kidney at the early age of thirty-nine. He died at his residence at Tunbridge Wells, where he retired for the benefit of his health, Oct. 27th, 1854. The medical profession affords few instances of so great success at so early a period of life as afforded by Dr. Bird; at the same time his success was acquired by an industry which overtaxed his frame, and undoubtedly led to his premature decease. Dr. Bird's labours were not entirely confined to professional subjects. He cultivated observation with the microscope, and contributed observations to our scientific literature, both on zoological and botanical subjects. He improved the structure of the galvanic machines in use in his time. He was elected a fellow of the Royal Society, and served the office of president of the Westminster Medical Society, and was a member of many foreign learned societies.—E. L.  BIRD,, died in London in 1776, aged sixty-seven. Bird was the precursor of our Ramages and Troughtons, although originally a cloth weaver in the county of Durham. We owe him our first scientific mode of dividing astronomical instruments. His eight-feet Greenwich mural quadrant is still reverently preserved there. He wrote two treatises,—one on the method of dividing astronomical instruments, and the other on the construction of mural quadrants. It is impossible to miss observing, that in all his works and writings Mr. Bird possessed high mechanical capacity; but the scheme or theory of his instruments was essentially erroneous.—J. P. N.  BIRD,, an American novelist, born at Newcastle, Delaware, in 1803, and educated in Philadelphia, where he became a physician. But his tastes were literary, and he soon began to write for the magazines and the stage. In 1834 he published his first novel, "Calavar, or the Knight of the Conquest, a Romance of Mexico," which was deservedly praised at the time for the truthfulness and vivacity of its sketches of Mexican manners, scenery, and history. The same characteristics marked his second essay in fiction, "The Infidel, or the Fall of Mexico," a continuation of the former story, which appeared in 1835. Then followed in rapid succession "The Hawks of Hawks Hollow;" "Nick of the Woods;" "Peter Pilgrim;" and "The Adventures of Robin Day." "Sheppard Lee," another novel, was published anonymously, but came unquestionably from the same pen. After the publication of the last of these novels in 1839, Dr. Bird ceased to write for the press, and devoted himself to the cultivation of a large farm. Then he returned to Philadelphia, and began to edit the North American Gazette, which he in part owned. He died in that city of brain fever, January 23, 1854.—F. B.  BIRD, .—See.  BIREN or BUREN,, duke of Courland, born 1690, was the son of a captain, and, as was sometimes reproached to him in the course of his adventurous life, grandson of a groom. Coming to St. Petersburg in 1714, with an ambitious hope of being received into the imperial household, he found an obstacle to its realization in his humble birth, but eventually fell upon a better scheme of improving his fortunes, by having himself introduced at the court of Anne, duchess of Courland, with whom he became such a favourite that on her accession to the throne of Russia, 1730, notwithstanding the sullen opposition of the nobles, this grandson of a groom became absolute master of the empire. To his title of grand-chamberlain was added that of count of the empire, and to both in 1737, by election of the nobility, who at an earlier period had refused even on the solicitation of his mistress to let him be ranked with the aristocracy of the province, the illustrious title of duke of Courland. Till the death of Anne, 1740, no effectual opposition was offered to the cruel, although not inglorious tyranny of the favourite; but as before that event various unsuccessful attempts had been made upon his life, so its occurrence offered an opportunity, which was not neglected by his enemies, of demolishing his authority. It was with difficulty he succeeded in maintaining himself for a time in the post assigned to him by Catherine of regent of the kingdom, during the minority of Ivan, and on his entering into an intrigue to marry his son to the princess Elizabeth, the influence of Marshal Munich was sufficient to arrest his ambition and eventually to have him banished to Siberia. Elizabeth on her accession recalled him from exile, but not to the seat of government; he was ordered to Yaroslaw, where he passed, still in disgrace or at least under confiscation of his estates, the reign of Peter III. Catherine II., in whose interests he had been active previous to her accession, reinstated him in his dukedom, which he afterwards governed with singular prudence and moderation. His death occurred in 1772. His son Peter succeeding him in the duchy, retained it only till 1798, and died in 1800.—J. S., G.  BIRGER, a Swedish general, regent of the kingdom during his son's minority; born about the year 1210; died in 1266. The reigning prince, Eric, whose sister Ingeborg he had married, being childless, he acquired pretensions to the throne; which, on the death of Eric, were set aside in favour of those of his son Valdemar. He had just completed the subjugation of Finland when that event occurred, and was deeply mortified at the haste with which, neglecting his services to the state, the magnates of the kingdom had raised Valdemar, then only thirteen years of age, to the throne of his uncle. The honours of the regency, however, so far satisfied his ambition, that he applied himself to the business of government in the spirit of a patriot, as well as with the skill of a veteran statesman. He exerted himself to improve the laws and reform the institutions of his country, abolished slavery, founded the city of Stockholm and the cathedral of Upsal, and by a wise and beneficent administration earned the gratitude of the Swedish people. The last act of his life was the only one of his measures which issued unfortunately for his country; he divided the kingdom among his four sons—the crown and its appendages to one, and duchies to the others—and by that act prepared the way for years of anarchy and bloodshed.—J. S., G.  BIRGER, king of Sweden, grandson of Birger de Bielbo, born in 1281; died in 1321. In 1304 his brothers Eric and Valdemar attempted to dethrone him, and after a tedious struggle succeeded in making him prisoner and forcing him to share the kingdom with them. In 1317, however, he had them seized while in a state of inebriety, and shut up in the keep of Nykjöpping, where they were allowed to die of starvation. This cruelty enraged the inhabitants of Stockholm, who revolted, banished the king, executed his son, and raised Magnus, the son of Eric, to the throne. Birger died in Denmark.—J. S., G.  BIRKBECK,, M.D., whose name will be long remembered as the founder of the first mechanics' institution, was the son of a merchant and banker in Settle, Yorkshire, where he was born, 10th January, 1776. He received the rudiments of education at a village school, and being determined to enter the medical profession, he began his studies at Leeds, thence went to Edinburgh where he remained for one session. He then repaired to London where he studied under Dr. Baillie during one winter, at the close of which he went back to Edinburgh. During his course there he was a most distinguished student, and had the friendship of such men as Horner, Smith, Brougham, and Jeffrey. Having taken his diploma, and when only twenty-three years of age, he was elected professor of natural philosophy in the Andersonian University of Glasgow. It was while discharging the duties there that his attention was first turned to the subjects in which he ever after took so deep an interest. Requiring some philosophical instruments, and finding, at that period, no one in Glasgow qualified to make them, he had to employ common mechanics who executed the several parts under his immediate direction. While surrounded by a number of the workmen, to whom he was endeavouring to explain the construction of an instrument they were making for him, it occurred to him, that it would be well to deliver a course of lectures on science to the men who, in their every-day labours, were applying mechanical principles of which they were ignorant. At the close of the year 1800, he advertised a class, "solely," as he said in the prospectus, "for persons engaged <section end="629Zcontin" />