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ALE better result than on the previous occasion. The state exigencies of Charles and Ferdinand still made it necessary for them to temporise with the Reformers; and Aleander returned in bitter disappointment to Rome. He died 31st Jan., 1542, and left behind him some fruits of his earlier studies, in several works of a grammatical and lexical character, and an unfinished work, "De concilio habendo," which is said to have been of service to the pope and his bishops and doctors, in the management of the council of Trent.—P. L.  ALEANDER,, the , grand-nephew of the cardinal, was born at Motta in Friuli, July, 1574; died 1629. He has left works on various subjects, antiquities, law, &c.  ALEAUME,, a French writer of the 16th century, celebrated for his Latin poetry; was born at Verneuil 1525; died 1596.  ALEFELD, the name of several distinguished individuals connected with the duchy of Holstein:—, born 1506; died 1586; left behind him some Latin letters to the superintendent of the province.— lived at the end of the seventeenth century, and published, at Copenhagen, a treatise on mathematics.—., a politician of the seventeenth century.—., born in 1623, lost his valuable library by fire in 1682. Died at Copenhagen in 1686.  ALEFELD,, was born at Giessen, 1732, and having gained his medical diploma in 1756, was appointed professor of medicine and physics in that university. He died in 1774, leaving several works on medical subjects.  ALEGAMBE,, a jesuit writer, was born at Brussels, 1592. He taught philosophy at the jesuit college of Gratz, where the prince of Eggenberg appointed him tutor to his son, with whom he travelled through the principal countries of Europe. He has left many writings, the chief of which is an elaborate work on the biography and bibliography of the earlier jesuit writers—a continuation of the work published at Antwerp by Ribadeniera. After the death of Alegambe at Rome, 1651, this work was enlarged by Father Nathaniel Southwell.—S.  ALEGRE,, Marquis d', a field-marshal of France, was born 1653; died 1733. He distinguished himself much under Villars in his German and Flemish campaigns, and, as a reward for his services, was nominated by Louis XIV. his commissary to preside over the assembly of the states in Brittany.  ALEKSDAEEV or ALEXEJEV, , a painter, called the Russian Canaletto; born 1755; died 1821. He was patronized by the Emperor Paul, and was distinguished for skill in perspective and general accuracy. <section end="107H" /> <section begin="107I" />ALEMAGNA,, a painter, who lived in the fifteenth century. He was probably of German origin, though his principal work, a fresco, is to be found in the convent of Santa Maria di Costello at Genoa. <section end="107I" /> <section begin="107J" />ALEMAN,, called the Cardinal of Arles, the founder of the "moderate," as opposed to the "ultramontane" party in the church of Rome, was born at Bugey in 1390. He distinguished himself as one of the presidents of the council of Basle in 1431, by his vehement opposition to Eugenius IV., who asserted the supremacy of the popes over the councils. It was Aleman who caused the election of the antipope Felix V., whom he afterwards, however, prevailed upon to abdicate. Having lost all his ecclesiastical dignities under Eugenius IV., he was restored to them by Nicolas V. Died in 1452.—A. M. <section end="107J" /> <section begin="107K" />ALEMAN,, a Spanish author, who wrote in the latter half of the 16th century, and had an office in the treasury under Philip II. His once celebrated work, "Guzman de Alfarache," was translated by Le Sage into French, and may be regarded as, in some measure, the parent of Gil Bias. <section end="107K" /> <section begin="107L" />ALEMAND,, first an advocate, and afterwards a physician, was born at Grenoble in 1653. He was an author of some repute in his day. His principal works are:—"Nouvelles observations, ou guerre civile des Français sur la langue," and "Histoire monastique de l'Irlande," the basis of the "Monasticon Hibernicon." Died about 1728. <section end="107L" /> <section begin="107M" />ALEMAN,, called also , was a learned German, rector of the university of Vienna. Born at Magdeburg in 1309; died at Ratisbon in 1398. He has written a "Vita Erhardi Episcopi;" "Vita Dominici;" "Politica œconomica et monastica," &c. <section end="107M" /> <section begin="107N" />ALEMANNI or ALEMANNO,, a Tuscan poet, who flourished about the end of the fifteenth and the commencement of the sixteenth centuries. He wrote sonnets, and a "Comedia," treating of the conversion of St Mary Magdalene. <section end="107N" /> <section begin="107O" />ALEMANNI or ALAMANNI,, an enthusiastic admirer of Thomas Aquinas, and author of a summary of the writings of that remarkable schoolman, was born at Milan about 1559, and died in 1634. <section end="107O" /> <section begin="107P" />ALEMANNI or ALAMANNI,, an Italian poet and statesman, was born at Florence in 1495. The discovery of a political plot in which he had engaged, compelling him to flee, he repaired to Venice, afterwards to Genoa, and ultimately settled in France. So highly was he appreciated by Francis I., as to be sent by him as his ambassador to Charles V. He executed the mission with great address. He equally enjoyed the favour of Henry II. of France, who repeatedly employed him in important negotiations. Died at Amboise in 1556.—E. M. <section end="107P" /> <section begin="107Q" />ALEMANNI or ALAMANNI,, a Greek by descent, born at Ancona in 1583, was educated at Rome, where he became an ecclesiastic, professor of rhetoric and Greek literature, and afterwards librarian to the Vatican. Besides several Latin dissertations, he published the "Secret History" of Procopius. Died at Rome 1625. <section end="107Q" /> <section begin="107R" />ALEMANNO,, or , a painter of German origin, established at Venice during the first half of the fifteenth century. Pictures of his may be seen in several churches of Venice and Padua. <section end="107R" /> <section begin="107S" />ALEMANS,, a Flemish miniature portrait painter of great fame during the latter part of the seventeenth century. He studied in Italy. <section end="107S" /> <section begin="107Zcontin" />ALEMBERT,, one of the most eminent scientific and literary men of the eighteenth century, was born on the 16th of November, 1717, in Paris, where he also died on the 29th of October, 1783. He was the illegitimate son of the Chevalier Destouches-Canon, and the celebrated beauty, Madame de Tencin. Having been exposed by that lady on the threshold of the church of St.-Jean-Le-Rond, the infant was found by the commissary or police magistrate of the quarter, who gave him the name of the patron saint of that church, and intrusted him to the care of a woman named Rousseau, wife of a glazier, who lived in the street Michel-le-Comte. What were the qualities of that poor and humble nurse, may be inferred from the filial affection with which D'Alembert for more than forty years repaid her kindness and care.

A few days after the birth of Jean-le-Rond, his situation was discovered by his father, who provided for his education, and settled upon him an annuity of forty-eight pounds a year. He was educated with a view at first to the profession of the law, and afterwards to that of medicine; but so strong was his natural bent towards science and literature, that he finally determined to be content with his annuity as a means of subsistence, and his nurse's house as an abode, and to devote himself entirely to his favourite studies, which, though fruitful of enjoyment and honour, he well knew to be barren of emolument.

D'Alembert first acquired distinction in mathematical science by his "Mémoire sur le calcul intégral," presented to the Academy of Sciences in 1739. Of that body he was elected a member in 1741; and he afterwards continued to produce a series of treatises and papers relating to analytical mechanics, which contributed, perhaps, more than the works of any other author of the period, to reduce to a systematic form the art of applying mathematical principles to the development of the consequences of those laws of motion and force which had been established by Galileo and Newton. One of his discoveries, not involving any new physical law, but consisting in an admirably simple and general method of expressing mathematically the application of the known laws of motion to any system of bodies connected in any manner, and acted on by any system of forces, how complicated soever, is known to this day by the name of "D'Alembert's Principle." It is this—"If, from the forces impressed on any system of bodies connected in any manner, there be subtracted the forces which, acting alone, would be capable of producing the actual accelerations and retardations of the bodies, the remaining system of forces must balance each other." A general idea of the scientific labours of D'Alembert may be best given by the following lists of his mathematical, mechanical, and astronomical works:—"Traité de Dynamique," 1 vol. 4to; "Traité de l'équilibre et du mouvement des Fluides," 1 vol. 4to; "Reflexions sur la cause générale des Vents," 1 vol. 4to; "Recherches sur la Précession des Equinoxes et sur la Nutation de l'axe de la Terre," 1 vol. 4to; "Recherches sur different points importants du système du monde," 3 vols. 4to; "Tabularum <section end="107Zcontin" />