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 and Misdemeanors" were understood as offenses against the constitutional system itself. This is confirmed by use of the word "high," as well as Parliamentary practice. From 1376 to 1787, the House of Commons impeached officials on seven general grounds: (1) abuse of power; (2) betrayal of the nation's security and foreign policy; (3) corruption; (4) armed rebellion [a.k.a. treason]; (5) bribery; (6) neglect of duty; and (7) violating Parliament's constitutional prerogatives. To the Framers and their contemporaries learned in the law, the phrase "high Crimes and Misdemeanors" would have called to mind these offenses against the body politic.

The same understanding prevailed on this side of the Atlantic. In the colonial period and under newly-ratified state constitutions, most impeachments targeted abuse of power, betrayal of the revolutionary cause, corruption, treason, and bribery. Many Framers at the Constitutional Convention had participated in drafting their state constitutions, or in colonial and state removal proceedings, and were steeped in this outlook on impeachment. Further, the Framers knew well the Declaration of Independence, "whose bill of particulars against King George III modeled what [we would] now view as articles of impeachment." That bill of particulars did not dwell on technicalities of criminal law, but rather charged the king with a "long train of abuses and usurpations," including misuse of power, efforts to obstruct and undermine elections, and violating individual rights.

History thus teaches that "high Crimes and Misdemeanors" referred mainly to acts committed by public officials, using their power or privileges, that inflicted grave harm on society itself. Such great and dangerous offenses included treason, bribery, abuse of power, betrayal of the nation, and corruption of office. They were unified by a clear theme: officials who abused, abandoned, or sought personal benefit from their public trust—and who threatened the rule of law if left in power—faced impeachment and removal.

B.Treason and Bribery

For the briefest of moments at the Constitutional Convention, it appeared as though Presidential impeachment might be restricted to "treason, or bribery." But when this suggestion reached the floor, Mason revolted. With undisguised alarm, he warned that such limited grounds for impeachment would miss "attempts to subvert the Constitution," as well as "many great and dangerous offenses." Here he invoked the charges pending in Parliament against Hastings as a case warranting impeachment for reasons other than treason. To "extend the power of impeachments," Mason initially suggested adding "or maladministration" after "treason, or bribery." Madison, however, objected that "so vague a term