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194 some sort as the representative of learning in the archbishop's household, he was constrained to take up the defence of those principles of knowledge which he had acquired at Chartres, against the vain substitutes for it which were everywhere forcing themselves into notice. His Metalogicus supposes a state of things somewhat different from, somewhat more degenerate than, that to which we have just now alluded. His opponents were not solely the logical fanatics whose acquaintance he had made at Paris, although they were as fond of splitting hairs. On the contrary they were animated by an impartial contempt for all the educational tradition of the schools: logic they scorned as heartily as they did grammar, and were confident of becoming philosophers by rule of thumb. John had no difficulty in combating this supercilious attitude, but the interest of his treatise is that it gives him occasion to discuss at large his favourite theme of the interdependence of the several arts that relate to the laws and functions of language, in other words, of the Trivium: for he maintains it is only by a thorough study of grammar, rhetoric, and dialectic, considered as mutually connected and auxiliary, that we can lay the foundations of genuine knowledge. Dialectic itself, valuable and necessary as it is, is like the sword of Hercules in a Pigmy's hand unless there be added to it the accoutrement of the other sciences.

The Metalogicus has in one respect a peculiar value: it is the first work in the middle ages in which the whole of Aristotle's Organon is turned to account. Having thus a surer basis to build upon than any of his predecessors, John relies entirely upon Aristotle for his logical theory. In reference to the crucial question of the universals he is the loyal disciple of Abailard, whose principles he elaborates from the newly discovered source. But even on a point to which supreme importance was attached by his contemporaries John declines to be positive: he chooses the conclusion of Aristotle not because of its absolute scientific truth but because it is the best