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 192 HISTORY OF FRANCE. [chap. an ally and then a canton of Switzerland. The French dominion was now at its greatest extent. At the beginning of the Revolution the French had annexed only those lands to which they could pretend some kind of claim according to their notions, such lands, for instance, as had formed part of Roman Gaul. But now Buonaparte took what he pleased, with only such kind of excuses as saying that it was needful for France to have the mouths of all the Ger- man rivers, in order to be safe against England. While in Vienna, he had also annexed Rome to his dominions, and declared it the second city of the Empire. Hereupon Pope Pius VII. excommunicated Napoleon ; but he was carried a prisoner to France, and kept there as long as Napoleon's power lasted. 28. The Russian Campaign. 1812-ir — By this time the friendship between Buonaparte and Alexander of Russia was beginning to give way. Buonaparte seem s really to hnvp planned the conquest of all " Europe, and he specially offended the Russian Emperor by half promises made to the Poles of a fuller restoration of their country than he had made by creating the Duchy of Warsaw. About the same time he made another enemy by attacks on the independence of Sweden and agression on the Swedish possessions in Germany. The ruler of Sweden was now one of his own former generals, Bernadotte, who had been chosen Crown Prince and successor to the childless King Charles XIII. Sweden now formed an alliance with Russia. Buonaparte marched out of France with what he called the Grand Ariny, composed of troops from France, Holland, Poland, Italy, and the Confeder- ation of the Rhine. Austria and Prussia had also to give their assistance, but they did so unwillingly, and meaning to turn against Napoleon if he should be beaten by the Russians. The Peninsular war occupied Soult and Marmont, but all the rest of the marshals, with Napoleon at their head, marched in full security of con- quest with an almost innumerable army upon Moscow. In spite of enormous losses through hardships ancTwant of food, the army made its way through Russia, On the 5th of September. 1812. was fought the first considerable battle at Borodino, on the banks of the Mos koiv a. Napoleon was unwell ; he had just received the tidings that Marmont had been beaten by Wellington at Sala- manca, and he did not show his usual vigour ; but tKe l)atllc, thou'.;h hotly contested by the Russian f^eneriis,