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 BENTHAM. 565 (1808-64; Institutes of Metaphysics, 2d ed., 1856), who himself developed an idealistic standpoint. In the United States the Scottish philosophy has exer- cised a wide influence. In recent times it has been strenu- ously advocated, chiefly in the spirit of Reid, by James McCosh (a native of Scotland, but since 1868 in America; The Intuitio?ts of the Mind, 3d ed., 1872 ; The Laws of Dis- cursive Thought, new ed., 1891 ; First and Fundamental Truths, 1889); while in Noah Porter (died 1892; The Hutnan Intellect, new ed., 1876; The Elements of Moral Science, 1885) it appears modified by elements from Gcr- man thinking. Jeremy Bentham * (1748-1832) is noteworthy for his at- tempt to revive Epicureanism in modern form. Virtue is the surest means to pleasure, and pleasure the only self- evident good. Every man strives after happiness, but not every one in the right way. The honest man calculates correctly, the criminal falsely ; hence a careful calculation of the value of the various pleasures, and a prudent use of the means to happiness, is the first condition of virtue ; in this the easily attainable minor joys, whose summation amounts to a considerable quantum, must not be neglected. The value of a pleasure is measured by its intensity, dura- tion, certainty, propinquity, fecundity in the production of further pleasure, purity or freedom from admixture of consequent pain, and extent to the greatest possible number of persons. Every virtuous action results in a balance of pleasure. Inflict no evil on thyself or others from which a balance of good will not result. The end of morality is the " greatest happiness of the greatest number," in the pro. duction of which each has first to care for his own welfare: whoever injures himself more than he serves others acts im- morally, for he diminishes the sum of happiness in the world ; the interest of the individual coincides with the in- new ed., 1823, reprinted 1876 ; Deontology, 1834, edited by Bowring, who also edited the Works, 1838-43. Tht Principles of Civil and Criminal T.eg- islafion, edited in French from Bentham's manuscripts by his pupil Etienne Dumont (1801, 2d ed.. 1820; English by Hildreth, 5th ed., 1887), was translated into German with notes by F. E. Beneke, 1830.
 * Bentham : Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation, 1789;