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54 Upsal, for instance, between England and Sweden (Cromwell and Christina—Whitelock and Oxenstiern) it is expressly stated, " Lest such free navigation should be prejudicial to the confederate that is at war, and lest hostile goods and wares should be concealed under the disguise of friendship, and for removing all suspicion and fraud, passports and certificates shall be provided."

In the treaty, too, between Denmark and France, 1645, it is expressly stated that freedom of commerce is to consist in "leaving things exactly as they are" in both Western and Northern Seas.

Having made these preliminary observations on the subject, I will proceed to give an account of how this principle of "free ships, free goods" came into vogue.

It was Holland that became its champion and its sponsor. After the war ended by the Treaty of Munster, which secured their independence to the Netherlands, the