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 CHARLEMAGNE 79 desired effect. It was not long before the Saxons again flew to arms, when they sustained so signal a defeat that very few of all their host escaped from the bloody field. Yet still the spirit of the barbarians, supported by an indomitable passion for war and plunder, continued as little quelled as ever. Witikind and Albion, their most popular chiefs, still maintained the contest, even when suffering noth- ing but disasters, until at length, their conqueror, subduing them more by policy than by arms, won them over to the Christian faith, which was then embraced by all Saxony.* This, for the time, produced a better feeling, though the truce was not of long duration. Hildegarde, the wife of Charlemagne, had now been dead some short time, when he married Fastrada, the daughter of a Prankish noble. It is said that from this union there arose a spirit of discontent among some of the leading men of his nation, who in consequence rebelled against him ; but, finding themselves too weak to contend with him, dispersed, and endeavored to find safety in con- cealment. They did not, however, escape their merited punishment. Being sooner or later taken, some had their eyes put out, others were degraded from their rank, none were condemned to death, but all to exile. Even these severe examples did not prevent the rise of many petty revolts, the different parts of which the Prankish kingdom was composed not being as yet sufficiently amalga- mated ; but they were suppressed by the united wisdom and vigor of the monarch. The short interval of peace now allowed him, Charlemagne employed in en- deavoring to educate and civilize his people. He made a tour through his do- minions, spreading local and general improvement, reforming laws, advancing knowledge, and building churches and monasteries, Christianity being one of the chief means to which he trusted for the attainment of his grand objects. In this he was no less successful than he had before been in war. With the exception of the Eastern Empire, France was now the most cultivated nation in Europe, even Rome herself sending thither for skilful workmen, while commerce, roads, and mechanics must have been much advanced, as we may infer from the facility with which marble columns and immense stone crosses were often carried through the whole extent of France upon carriages of native construction. Luxury, too, with its attendant arts, had made considerable strides. Vases of gold and silver richly carved, silver tables brightly wrought, bracelets, rings, and table-cloths of fine linen, might be seen in the houses of the nobles. The people must have been dexterous in working iron, for their superiority in this respect is evinced by the severe laws forbidding the exportation of arms. The calm, thus wisely employed, did not last long. Charlemagne was soon aroused from his peaceful occupations to put down a revolt of Tassilo, Duke of Bavaria, as well as a meditated attack upon Italy by Adalgisus, the son of the de- posed Lombard king, Desiderius, who was assisted underhand by the Greek em- press, Irene, and had besides formed a secret alliance with the Duke of Beneven- tum. Tassilo, being seized, was condemned to death by the great council. He queror. Paul Thumann has vividly portrayed the scene in the painting here copied.
 * Witikind was baptized with solemn ceremony by the great bishops of the realm, in presence of his con-.