Page:General Investigations of Curved Surfaces, by Carl Friedrich Gauss, translated into English by Adam Miller Hiltebeitel and James Caddall Morehead.djvu/62

 These theorems lead to the consideration of the theory of curved surfaces from a new point of view, where a wide and still wholly uncultivated field is open to investigation. If we consider surfaces not as boundaries of bodies, but as bodies of which one dimension vanishes, and if at the same time we conceive them as flexible but not extensible, we see that two essentially different relations must be distinguished, namely, on the one hand, those that presuppose a definite form of the surface in space; on the other hand, those that are independent of the various forms which the surface may assume. This discussion is concerned with the latter. In accordance with what has been said, the measure of curvature belongs to this case. But it is easily seen that the consideration of figures constructed upon the surface, their angles, their areas and their integral curvatures, the joining of the points by means of shortest lines, and the like, also belong to this case. All such investigations must start from this, that the very nature of the curved surface is given by means of the expression of any linear element in the form $\sqrt{E\, dp^{2} + 2F\, dp. dq + G\, dq^{2}}.$ The author has embodied in the present treatise a portion of his investigations in this field, made several years ago, while he limits himself to such as are not too remote for an introduction, and may, to some extent, be generally helpful in many further investigations. In our abstract, we must limit ourselves still more, and be content with citing only a few of them as types. The following theorems may serve for this purpose.

If upon a curved surface a system of infinitely many shortest lines of equal lengths be drawn from one initial point, then will the line going through the end points of these shortest lines cut each of them at right angles. If at every point of an arbitrary line on a curved surface shortest lines of equal lengths be drawn at right angles to this line, then will all these shortest lines be perpendicular also to the line which joins their other end points. Both these theorems, of which the latter can be regarded as a generalization of the former, will be demonstrated both analytically and by simple geometrical considerations. The excess of the sum of the angles of a triangle formed by shortest lines over two right angles is equal to the total curvature of the triangle. It will be assumed here that that angle ($57^{\circ}\, 17'\, 45''$ ) to which an arc equal to the radius of the sphere corresponds will be taken as the unit for the angles, and that for the unit of total curvature will be taken a part of the spherical surface, the area of which is a square whose side is equal to the radius of the sphere. Evidently we can express this important theorem thus also: the excess over two right angles of the angles of a triangle formed by shortest lines is to eight right angles as the part of the surface of the auxiliary sphere, which corresponds to it as its integral curvature, is to the whole surface of the sphere. In general, the excess over $2n - 4$  right angles of the angles of a polygon of $n$  sides, if these are shortest lines, will be equal to the integral curvature of the polygon.