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the masters of equitation have to admit that it is very nearly impossible to complete the education of any horse without having the animal show some tendency to lack of obedience, some trace of hesitation, refusal, or revolt. The experienced master senses this condition at its beginning; and without losing any time he discovers the reason for it, and corrects the trouble forthwith. At the early stage, correction is comparatively easy. But when the animal has once formed the habit of rebellion, correction is very difficult, indeed. The result is sometimes a downright fight between rider and horse.

The problem is, therefore, to discover the reason for the horse's defense, and then to remove the cause before the horse gets the idea that disobedience is possible. Experience shows, moreover, that these causes are generally physical. The only mental factor is the fear of injury from some object heard, seen, or smelled. This mental state is to be remedied only by persuasion, patience, and good treatment.

The physical causes of defense are bodily pains and the consequent memory of them. A horse will,