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 172 April The War Finances of Henry V and the Duke of Bedford THE distinctive feature of Henry V's military achievements is the continued effort which he maintained during a series of years J in a foreign and conquered country. His policy in this respect stands in marked contrast to that of Edward III, whose expeditions into the enemy's country never became more than raids on a large scale. Henry's campaigns show a deliberate scheme for occupying Normandy, a scheme carried out with some regard for strategy, backed by statesmanlike policy, supplemented by skilful diplomacy, and maintained during Henry's lifetime with an adequate force supported by regular levies of men and money, raised first from England and later from Normandy. The French failure successfully to combat the invader may in part be ascribed to the fact that the Armagnacs and Burgundians alike depended on mercenary armies which dispersed every autumn and had to be re-formed every spring ; but the chief advantage enjoyed by the English king lay in the fact that, while his opponents were most of the time financially embarrassed, he had a sufficiency of money. This enabled him not only to raise an army but also to keep it under his control. 2 Compared with the financial difficulties of his predecessor Henry's ' success in obtaining money, men, and ships ' was ' little less than miraculous '. 3 That the French war was popular seems evident from the readiness with which parliament voted supplies, although until 1417 but little advantage had been gained beyond the prestige resulting from Agincourt and the capture of Harfleur, the reten- tion of which place proved a drain upon the treasury. 4 Under 1 Only the years 1417 to 1424 are under consideration because these form a period in which there was a single military problem, namely the conquest and retention of Normandy. 2 See Newhall, ' Discipline in an English Army of the Fifteenth Century ', in The Military Historian and Economist, ii. 141 ff. 8 Stubbs, Constitutional History of England, 5th ed., iii. 90. For a general discussion of Henry's finances see Ramsay, Lancaster and York, i. 310-21, and Antiquary, viii. 96.
 * From 5 December 1415 until 2 March 1417 Harfleur cost £15,507 10s. d.