Page:Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition, v. 9.djvu/58

 48 FASTING the feasts of the transfiguration, the invention of the cross, the beheading of John the Baptist. During even the least rigid of these the use of flesh and lacticinia is strictly forbidden ; fish, oil, and wine are occasionally conceded, but not before two o clock in the afternoon. The practice of the Coptic church is almost identical with this. A week before the Great Fast (Lent), a fast of three days is observed in commemoration of that of the Ninevites, mentioned in the book of Jonah. Some of the Copts are said to observe it by total abstinence during the whole period. The Great Fast continues fifty-five days ; nothing is eaten except bread and vegetables, and that only in the afternoon, when church prayers are over. The Fast of the Nativity lasts for twenty-eight days before Christmas; that of the Apostles for a variable number of days from the Feast of the Ascension; and that of the Virgin for fifteen days before the Assumption. All Wednesdays and Fridays are also fast days except those that occur in the period between Easter and Whitsunday. The Armenians are equally strict; but (adds Rycaut) &quot;the times seem so con fused and without rule that they can scarce be recounted, unless by those who live amongst them, and strictly observe them, it being the chief care of the priest, whose learning principally consists in knowing the appointed times of fasting and feasting, the which they never omit on Sun days to publish unto the people.&quot; 1 At the council of Trent no more than a passing allusion was made to the subject of fasting. The faithful were simply enjoined to submit themselves to church authority on the subject ; and the clergy were exhorted to urge their flocks to the observance of frequent jejunia, as conducive to the mortification of the flesh, and as assuredly securing the divine favour. Bellarmine (De jejunio) distinguishes jejunium spirituale (abstinentia a vitiis), jejunium morale (parsimonia ettemperantiacibi etpotus), jejunium naturale (abstinentia ab omni prorsus cibo et potu, quacunque ratione sumpto), and jejunium ecclesiasticum. The last he defines simply as an abstinence from food in conformity with the rule of the church. It may be either voluntary or compulsory ; and compulsory either because of a vow or because of a command. But the definition given by Alexander Halensis, which is much fuller, still retains its authority: &quot;Jejunium est abstinentia a cibo et potu S3cundum formam ecclesise, intuitu satisfaciendi pro peccato et acquirendi vitam seternam.&quot; It was to this last clause that the Reformers most seriously objected. They did not deny that fasting might be a good thing, nor did they maintain that the church or the authority might not ordain fasts, though they deprecated the imposition of needless bur- clenfi on the conscience. What they protested against was the theory of the opus operatum et meritorium as applied to fasting. As matter of fact, the Reformed churches in no case give up the custom of observing fast days, though by some churches the number of such days was greatly reduced. In many parts of Germany, the seasons of Lent and Advent are still marked by the use of emblems of mourning in the churches, by the frequency of certain phrases (Kyrie eleison, Agnus Dei) and the absence of others (Hallelujah, Gloria in excelsis) in the liturgical services, by abstinence from some of the usual social festivities, and by the non-celebration of marriages. And occasional fasts are more or less familiar. The Church of England has retained a considerable list of fasta; though Hooker (E. P., v. 72) had to contend with some who, while approving of fastings undertaken &quot; of men s own free and voluntary accord as their particular devotion doth move them thereunto,&quot; yet &quot;yearly or weekly fasts such 1 See Fink s article &quot; Fasten &quot; in Ersch ami Gruber s Encydop&die ; Lane, Modern Egyptians ; and Rycaut, Present State of the Armenian Church. as ours in the Church of England they allow no further than as the temporal state of the land doth require the same for the maintenance of seafaring men and preservation of cattle ; because the decay of the one and the waste of the other could not well be prevented but by a politic order appointing some such usual change of diet as ours is.&quot; In the practice of modern Catholicism the following are recognized as fasting days, that is to say, days on which one meal only, and that not of flesh, may be taken in the course of twenty-four hours : The forty days of Lent (Sundays excepted), all the Ember days, the Wednesdays and Fridays in Advent, and the vigils of certain feasts, namely, those of Whitsuntide, of St Peter and St Paul, of the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary, of All Saints, and of Christmas day. The following are simply days of abstinence, that is to say, days on which flesh at all events must not be eaten : The Sundays in Lent, the three Rogation days, the fea&t of St Mark (unless it falls in Easter week), and all Fridays which are not days of fasting. In the English Church, the &quot; days of fasting or abstinence &quot; are the forty days of Lent, the Ember days, the Rogation days, and all the Fridays in the year, except Christmas day. The evens or vigils before Christmas, the Purification of the Blessed Virgin Mary, the Annunciation of the Blessed Virgin Mary, Easter day, Ascension day, Pentecost, St Matthias, the Nativity of St John Baptist, St Peter, St James, St Bartholomew, St Mat thew, St Simon and St Jude, St Andrew, St Thomas, and All Saints are also recognized as &quot; fast days.&quot; By the Gith canon it is enacted that &quot; every parson, vicar, or curate, shall in his several charge declare to the people every Sunday at the time appointed in the communion- book [which is, after the Nicene creed has been repeated] whether there be any holy-days or fast-days the week following.&quot; The 72d canon ordains that &quot; no minister or ministers shall, without licence and direction of the bishop under hand and seal, appoint or keep any solemn fasts, either publicly or in any private houses, other than such as by law are or by public authority shall bo appointed, nor shall be wittingly present at any of them under pain of suspen sion for the first fault, of excommunication for the second, and of deposition from the ministry for the third.&quot; While strongly discouraging the arbitrary multiplication of public or private fasts, the English Church seems to leave to the discretion of the individual conscience every question as to the manner in which the fasts she formally enjoius are to be observed. In this connexion the homily Of Fasting may be again referred to. By a statute of the reign of Queen Elizabeth it was enacted that none should eat flesh on &quot; fish days &quot; (the Wednesdays, Fridays, and Saturdays throughout the year) without a licence, under a penalty. In the Scottish Presbyterian churches days of &quot; fasting, humilia tion, and prayer :&amp;gt; are observed by ecclesiastical appoint ment in each parish once or twice every year on some day of the week preceding the Sunday fixed for the adminis tration of the sacrament of the Lord s Supper. In some of the New England States, it has been usual for the gov ernor to appoint by proclamation at somo time in spring a day of fasting, when religious services are conducted in the churches. National fasts have more than once been observed on special occasions both in this country and in the United States of America. On the subject of fasting the views of Aerius are to a large extent shared by modern Protestant moralists. Rothe, for example, who on this point may be regarded as a representative thinker, rejects the idea that fasting is a thing meritorious in itself, and is very doubtful of its value even as an aid to devotional feeling. Of course when bodily health and other circumstances re quire it, it becomes a duty ; and as a means of self- discipline it may be used with due regard to the claims