Page:Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition, v. 9.djvu/35

 FAMINES 25 tropical countries, vliero the rains are so much of the nature of torrents that the evil presents itself in a magni fied degree. Improved cultivation of the laud, embracing good drainage, is providing the most effective remedy. Other forms of damage to gram crops result from rain, as where it occurs in undue quantities during the harvest season, and the crops are destroyed before they can be safely stored. This has constantly happened in the northern portions of our own kingdom, and in parts of continental Europe. Inundations from the sea, from rivers, from inland lakes, fall within this category, and great mischief has resulted from these in many parts of the world. White, in his Natural History of Selborne, gives scientific reasons why much-flooded lands remain infertile the bene ficial action of the earth-worms is thereby retarded. 2. Frost. In temperate regions frost is a deadly enemy to vegetation in several forms. In the case of grain cultiva tion it may, by setting in early, prevent the efficient mani pulation of the soil and the sowing of the autumn seed. Or by being protracted beyond the early months of the year, it will prevent spring sowing, and even seriously injure the young crops. Combined with rain it will frequently destroy the vitality of the seed while yet in the ground. In the northern part of our island it not unfrequently destroys the grain before it is fully harvested. Efficient drainage of the soil is almost as effective against the ravages of frost o o as against the damage from rain. Many famines in Great Britain have been shown to be directly the result of frost. In France, and other wine and olive producing countries, the damage occasioned by frost is immense. Such damage, as well as that occasioned by floods, is there a recognized branch of insurance business. 3. Drought. In all climates of a tropical character drought plays an important part in retarding the develop ment of vegetation. When combined with moisture, solar heat affords the most certain means of securing luxuriance ; without the moisture there is absolute sterility. The early Bible records refer to the rising of the waters of the Nile as the event upon which the fertility of Egypt depends. About 10GO the overflowing of this great river failed for seven successive years, occasioning one of the greatest famines of history. Two provinces were wholly depopulated ; and in another half the inhabitants perished. Even in tem perate climates long-continued drought is very disastrous. 4. Other Meteorological Phenomena. Under this general designation has to be included several causes more or less directly or remotely contributing to famines, (a) Comets. The appearance of these has often coincided with periods of drought ; they are also frequently associated with ex cessive heat. But heat, except in so far as it may super induce drought, is not detrimental to the grain crops ; while, in relation to fruit crops, and more especially that of the vine, not only h the quality of the produce greatly enhanced, but frequently its quantity also. The sale of some of the comet-claret of 1811 recently at 12, 10s. per bottle in Paris is some evidence of the quality. (b) Earthquakes. These would seem to have but little in fluence in producing famine, except in the immediate locality of their devastations. Where, however, they have produced irruptions of the sea or inland waters, which has not unfrequently been the case, the damage has been extensive, (c) Hurricanes and Storms. These frequently produce widespread injury in the localities they visit. They also lead to irruptions of the sea, and to the overflow of rivers ; but as a rule these occur at periods of the year when the grain and other crops are not sufficiently advanced to sustain serious damage by shaking or otherwise, or have been harvested. (d) Hail-storms. These are usually local in their effects rarely extending beyond GO miles in their greatest length and some G miles in width, and are generally confined to much smaller limits. They are most destructive to grain and fruit produce of all kind when they occur in severe form, and in the summer and autumn months when they are most prevalent. The damage these occasion has long been the subject of insurance alike in England and other parts of Europe. In France hail-storms are of great frequency, and also of great severity. 5. Insects, Vermin, &c. Insect plagues appear to have afflicted mankind from a very early period. Thus flies and locusts were among the plagues of Egypt, and concerning the latter wo read (Ex. x. 14, 15): &quot; Very grievous were they; before them there were no such locusts as they, neither after them shall be such. For they covered the face of the whole earth, so that the land was darkened ; and they did eat every herb of the land, and all the fruit of the trees which the hail had left ; and there remained not any green in the trees, or in the herbs of the field, through all the land of Egypt.&quot; The present writer travelled in 1874 through districts in the Western States of America devastated very much in the manner thus described. The famine now raging in Xorth China began in one district at least by a visitation of locusts. In India such visitations have occurred several times. England has been visited on various occasions by plagues of insects, especially in 47G and again in 872. As to vermin, such as rats, mice, &c., destroying the crops, there are but few instances on record. In 1581 there was a plague of mice in Essex, and in 1812-13 a plague of rats in the Madras presidency, which in part occasioned the famine of that year. We now turn to the artificial causes of famines, some of which hardly admit of being dealt with in the same detail. G. War. Warfare has a tendency to create famine in one or other of several forms. It too frequently retards cultivation, either by its direct operation, or indirectly by calling the agricultural classes to arms. By its agency, too, the crops of whole districts are either designedly destroyed or ruinously devastated. Famines in particular towns or localities are often occasioned by the establish ment of blockades, or through supplies being otherwise intercepted or cut off. A large quantity of grain, too, is probably damaged every year by being kept in military stores in various parts of Europe ; in the event of famine, however, these stores may become of immense value. 7, Defective Agriculture. This may result from one of several causes, as ignorance, indifference, or unsuitability of climate or location. Where the produce of the soil but barely meets the current requirements of the inhabitant?, it is clear that either the failure of one season s crops, or the sudden influx of any great number of strangers, may produce at least temporary famine. See Macaulay s Eng land, vol. i. chap. 3, or Wade s Jjritisk History chrono logically arranged, under date 1549 to 1553, tc. 8. Defective Transjwrt. This may arise from such causes as bad roads or want of roads, absence of canals or want of shipping, or from wilful obstruction. In our own country we had the advantage of the great Roman roads from a very early period ; but still for cross country purposes the roads remained very bad, or, indeed, did not exist, until comparatively recent times. In 1285 an Act was passed for widening the highways from one market town to another ; &quot; but this was intended rather to pre vent robbery than to facilitate travelling &quot; (Wade). In consequence of the bad state of the roads it has fre quently happened that there was a famine prevailing in one part of the kingdom, with a superabundance of food in another. The introduction of canals, and subsequently of railroads, removed all possible difficulty in the United Kingdom. In India at the present moment the chief diffi culty in connexion with the famines is the want of the means of transport. IX. -4