Page:Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition, v. 8.djvu/754

Rh 718 EUROPE Touraine, and Poitou, and of Normandy, Verraandois, Alenson, Auvergne, and Evreux; St Louis obliged the count of Toulouse not only to give up part of his territory, but also to recognize the reversionary rights of the crown ; Philip IV. added the countship of Lyonnais, and John incorporated Champagne and Brie. With the accassion of the house of Galois the duchy of that name naturally became part of the royal domain, and shortly afterwards Dauphine&quot; was obtained from the childless Hubert II. The long English wars interrupted the advance and dismembered the king dom, and it was not till 1450 that the king of France was again in possession of his full inheritance. In 1477 the great duchy of Burgundy was incorporated with the-crown : Provence, the Boulonnais, and Picardy were all acquired in 1481 ; and in 1488 the death of the last duke of Brittany paved the way for the incorporation of his duchy. Henry IV. brought part of Navarre, Beam, and Foix ; Louis XIII. united Arfcois with the crown ; and Louis XIV. secured not only the greater part of Alsace, but also French Flanders, and Tranche Comtd Corsica, which had been conquered from Genoa in 1768, and Avignon and the Venaissin, which had been held by the popes, were incor porated in 1791. Austria was originally a mark established by Charles the Great for the defence of Bavaria against the Avars. It was made a duchy by Frederick Barbarossa in 1156, and in 1192 was increased by the addition of Styria. The acqui sition of Carinthio, Tyrol, and Trieste took place in the 14th century; and in 1453 the duchy was made an arch duchy by the emperor Frederick. Dalmatia was gained by the treaty of Cambray in 1508; Hungary, Bohemia, and Silesia, by the marriage of the archduke Ferdinand, the brother of Charles V., with the Hungarian princess in 1526 ; Galicia and Loclomeria at the partition of Poland in 1772; and Bukovina from Turkey in 1778. The present German empire date?, as has been seen, only from 1872. Prussia, conquered from the pagan Slavonians by the Teutonic knights of the 13th century, was in 1525 granted by the Polish king Sigismund I. as an hereditary duchy to Albert of Brandenberg, and in 1611 became independent of the Polish crown. In 1701 Duke Frederick was permitted by the emperor to assume the title of king of Prussia; and under his grandson Frederick the Great the territory of the new kingdom was increased by Silesia and large parts of Poland. In 1866 Hanover, Hesse-Cassel, Nassau, and Frankfort were annexed. The battle of Morgarten in 1315 secured the inde pendence of the Forest Cantons of Switzerland ; and in 1352 the first real confederation was formed by Schwyz, Uri, Unterwalden, Lucerne, Zurich, Glarus, Zug, and Bern. Aargau or Argovia and Thurgau or Thurgovia were annexed in 1415, and Ticino or Tessin in 1418. Soleure or Solothurn and Freiburg or Fribourg joined the confederacy in 1481, Basel and Schaffhausen in 1501, and Appenzell in 1513; St Gall, Geneva, Neufchatel or Neuenburg, Valais or Wallis, and the Grisons or Graub linden shortly afterwards became associated states; and in 1536 Vaud or Waadt was conquered from the dukes of Savoy. The kingdom of Spain was formed by ths union of Castile and Aragon in 1479. Castile had become a king dom in 1033, and had successively incorporated Toledo, Leon, and Galicia; and Aragon, widen represented the older kingdom of Sobrarve, had gradually got possession of Catalonia and the countship of Barcelona, Valencia, Majorca, Minorca, and Ivica. The conquest of Granada in 1492 and of Navarre in 1512 completed the territorial extension. Portugal, which has more than once been in corporated with Spain, was erected into akingdom in 1139. The beginnings of the Russian empire are usually traced to a body of Scandinavian adventurers in the 9th century, but the real commencement of the present monarchy is the grand duchy of Moscow, which, in the 14th century, under Ivan Kalita, began to be paramount among the various Russian principalities. During the next 200 years these were gradually subdued, the last and greatest of all, Novgorod, being incorporated in 1478. In 1654 the chief of the Zaporogian Cossacks recognized the Russian supre macy, and Smolensk and part of White Russia wore annexed. In 1721 Livonia, Esthonia, Ingermanland, and part of Finland were ceded by Sweden; in 1742 another part of Finland was added ; in 1772 the northern and eastern portions of White Russia, and in 1774 Azoff, Kertch, Yenikale, and Kinburn. The whole of the Crimea was incorporated in 1783, and ten years after, Volhynia, Podolia, and the government of Minsk. The year 1795 saw the annexation of Lithuania, Courland, and Samogitia, and the first decade of the 19th century the successive incorporation of Georgia, Mingvelia, and the remainder of Finland. Imeritia was added in 1810, Bessarabia in 1812, and the duchy of Warsaw in 1815 ; and the conquest of the Caucasian region was completed in 1859-1864. The Scandinavian kingdoms date from the 8th and 9th centuries ; and their territory has been at various periods very differently distributed among themselves. An amal gamation was effected by the union of Calmar in 1397, and lasted till 1524. The present union of Norway and Sweden dates from the treaty of Kiel in 1814. To no man, however vast his experience and varied his G sympathies, is it granted to form even an approximate t( estimate of all the multitudinous forces that are at woik ( within the limits of a single country, and still less is it pos sible to form such an estimate if the field of observation include the heterogeneous activities of such an area as Europe. The local current is apt to be taken for the gene ral, and the recoil of the wave for the retreat of the tide. Still there are movements and tendencies which force them selves on the notice of even the superficial observer, about who?e present potency there can be no question, whatever antagonistic tendencies may be secretly gathering strength below the surface or in the remoter parts of the area. Of several of these mention more or less distinct has already been made, but it may be well to attempt a more systematic survey. We have seen that nationalism is powerfully at work ; i the tendency to give practical application in the political ^ domain to the principle familiarily expressed in the phrase qui se ressemble ^assemble, birds of a feather flock together. The so-called nations of Europe are still in painful process of formation, some in one stage and some in another, but all without exception very imperfectly organized. As a mere vocable the word nation is old enough, but the thought which it now vaguely expresses is a thought that men are but beginning to think. Europe has had its tribes and its kingdoms, its village-communities, its cities, its Achsean leagues, its Hanseatic confederations, its re publics, its empires ; it is only developing its nations. Hence in part the difficulty of attaining a satisfactory definition of nationality ; and hence the endless collisions and con fusions that arise in the practical application of the principle. If all people of the same blood spoke the same language, held the same religion, and occupied continuous territory, the whole question would be solved. But, as has been seen, this is as far as possible from being the case in Europe ; and neither blood, nor language, nor religion, nor continuity of territory can be accepted as master of the practical arrangement. The principle of nationalism has consequently to work by compromise. It sometimes appears as a restorative and conservative, sometimes as an innovating and creative force; and any attempt to insist that it shall be exclusively this or that is certain to be abortive.