Page:Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition, v. 7.djvu/778

754 754 EGYPT [niSTORY do Lusiguan (the king of Jerusalem and successor of Baldwin), with his brother and Renaud de Chatillon. The number of prisoners is almost incredible; and the massacre of many of them is an indelible stain on the glory of the generally merciful Saladin. Tiberias, Ptolemais (Acre /; ), Nabulus, Jericho, Ramleh, Csesarea, Arsoor, Joppa, Beyroot, and many other places successively fell into the hands of the conqueror. Tyre resisted his attacks; but Ascalon surrendered on favourable terms, and the fall of Jerusalem crowned these victories. The great clemency of Saladin on this occasion is chronicled by Christian historians, though it is but slightly mentioned by the Muslims, who took offence at the mercy sluwu to the enemies of their faith. After these events Tyre was again besieged, and when about to capitulate was relieved by the arrival of Conrad, son of the marquis of Montferrat. The valiant defence of the town wearied Saladin, who turned his arms against Tripoli ; but here he met with no better success. Bohe- mond, prince of Antioch, and at that time possessor of Tripoli also, was, however, glad to obtain a truce of eight months ; and some strongholds (among others Karak) were taken. But now the fortune of war turned against the sultan. The ever-memorable siege of Acre, maintained with equal constancy by both Christians and Muslims, lasted upwards of two years, and attracted the attention of the whole western world. At length the immense rein forcements received by the besiegers, and the presence of Richard Coaur de Lion of England and of Philip II. of France, enabled them to overcome all resistance, and the standards of the Cross floated on the ramparts of the city (A.D. 1191). A horrible act of barbarity was here perpe trated : 2700 Muslim captives were massacred in cold blood, in consequence of Saladin s having failed to fulfil the terms of the capitulation ; and the palliative plea of the heat of an assault cannot be urged in extenuation of this enormity. Richard has been accused of being its author ; but Michaud believes with reason that it was decided on in. a council of the chiefs of the Crusade. On another occasion, however, that king was certainly guilty of similar cruelty. After a period of repose and debauchery, the army of the Crusaders, commanded by Richard, directed its march towards Jerusalem. Saladin harassed his advance on every point, rendered the cities and strongholds defenceless, and ravaged the country. Richard, nevertheless, was ever victorious ; his personal bravery struck terror into the Muslims, and he gained a signal victory over the sultan in the battle of Arsoor. But dissensions among the chiefs of his army and the uncertain temper of the commander himself debarred the Crusaders from the attainment of their great object, the deliverance of the Holy City; and when all the coast from Joppa to Tyre was in the hands of the Christians, and the army of Saladin was threatened with disorganization, a treaty was concluded, and Richard set sail on his return to England. The glory acquired by Saladin, and the famous campaigns of Coeur de Lion, have rendered the Third Crusade the most memorable in history, and shed a lustre on the arms of both Muslims and Christians greater than they ever attained in those wars, either before or afterwards. Saladin died about a year after the conclusion of this peace (A.H. 589 or 1.193 of our Era) at Damascus, at the age of fifty-seven years. Ambition and religious zeal appear to have been his ruling passions; he was courageous, laagnanimous, and merciful, possessed of remarkable military talents and great control over himself. His generosity to the vanquished and hrs faithful observance of his passed word are lauded by the historians of the Crusades ; the former brought on him much obloquy among his own fierce soldiers, and is a trait in his character which is worthy of note in the annals of a time when this virtue was extremely rare. While engaged in the conduct of his continual wars, he was not unmindful of the welfare of Egypt, and during his reign many public works were executed. Of these we may mention especially the citadel of Cairo, with the magnificent buildings which, until very recently, it contained ; the third wall of the city ; and the repair of the great canal called the Bahr Yoosuf, a very important and useful work. From the year 578 until the period of his death he had not entered Egypt ; but his brother El-Melik El- Adil Seyf-ed-deen (Saphediu) and other princes of his family successively governed that country, and the eunuch Karakoosh, who also defended Acre, held a large share of authority. On the death of Saladin, his extensive dominions were divided chiefly among his sons, and Egypt fell to the lot of one of them, El-Melik El- Azeez Imad-ed-Deen Othman. The grandees sup ported, his claim to the throne, and he x proved himself worthy of their choice. In conjunction with El- Adil, we find him warring against the leaders of the Fourth Crusade. He reigned nearly six years, and was succeeded (in 595) by his son El-Mansoor Moham mad, whose uncle El-Afdal was compelled to relinquish the government of Damascus and assume the regency of Egypt. Dis- ngreement among the sons of Saladin had occurred soon after that monarch s death, and now hastened the rise of El- Adil, who, by his military talents and other remarkable qualities, had excited the fears of even his brother. &quot;With the view of checking his growing ascendancy, El-Afdal formed an alliance against him with Edh- Dhahir, another son of Saladin and lord of Aleppo, and besieged him in Damascus ; but coming to strife, they raised the siege in 597. This attempt proved fatal to the power of El-Afdal. He wa. pur sued to Egypt, in his turn besieged in El-Kahireh, and forced to ilee, and El- Adil was proclaimed sultan. Having dethroned El- Mansoor, he speedily recovered Damascus from the hands of the confederate brothers, and Syria with Egypt acknowledged his supremacy. El- Adil (as Saphedin) is especially known by his opposition to the Fourth and Sixth Crusades, the former of which took place before his accession to the throne. He repulsed the Christians neat Nabulus, captured Joppa, and encountered the enemy between Tyre and Sidon. He was there defeated with heavy loss, and Sidon, Laodicea, Gibleh, and Beyrout were taken. But the Crusaders wasted their strength before the fortress of Thoron. El- Adil raised the siege of that place, and although afterwards he met with a reverse near Joppa, his adversaries bought a dear victory ; and, having come to terms of peace, they returned to Europe. In the year 600 (A.D. 1204) he departed to Syria with the object of securing Jerusalem against threatened attacks, and concluded a truce which he offered to renew when about to expire ; and to prove his good faith, he strengthened that offer by promising to cede ten castles to the Christians. These overtures were refused, and the Muslim army drove the newly arrived king of Jerusalem, Jean de Brienne, back to Europe. Those who remained then professed their willingness to accede to conditions of peace, and we do not again hear of El- A dil in Palestine until 614 (A.I). 1217), when he was once more called thither to oppose the Crusaders ; but a serious invasion of Egypt by these troublesome adventurers hastily recalled its king, and he died of grief, it is said, on hearing of the advantages gained by them. El-Kamil immediately (615) came to the throne, and took the most energetic measures for the protection of his kingdom. In the meantime, the Franks had besieged Damietta both by sea .and land ; and, notwithstanding every effort for the relief of the place, its garrison was forced to capitulate. El-Kamil summoned to his aid the princes of his family, and with every available man watched the enemy s movements. Flushed with success, Jean de Brienne commenced his march on the capital; and with the characteristic carelessness of the Crusaders he took no measures to secure supplies. His advance was stopped at the junction of the canal of Ashmoon with the Nile, where he found El-Kamil in a very strong position. Encamped on the opposite shore, the invaders depended for supplies on Damietta and its immediate district; but the inundation of the Nile gradually obstructed land-carriage, and El-Kamil, skilfully availing himself of this natural ally, caused boats to be carried over land to the enemy s rear, and, thus cut off by land and water, they were compelled to attempt a retreat. At Beyramoon, however, all further progress was found to be impossible, the inundation had covered the level country, and the sultan s boats blockaded the Nile. The Franks surrendered, and evacuated Damietta, but not before Egypt had suffered severely from the ravages they committed. The town of El-Mansoorah was founded on the site of El-Kamil s camp, and commemorates his energy and sagacity. The Seventh Crusade was invited by the same sultan who had thus suffered by an invasion of the Franks. In A.D. 1228, El-Kamil invoked the aid of Frederick II. against his brother El-Moadhdham, lord of