Page:Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition, v. 6.djvu/417

Rh CORALS 387 Actinien insbcsondcrc, 1829. There are also numerous works and memoirs not above referred to by Alexander Agassiz, Louis Agassiz, Allman, Asbjornsen, Brandt, Busch, Claus, Cobbold, Costa, Dalyell, Dana, Darwin, Duncan, Fischer, E. Forbes, Frey and Leuckart, Gosse, Gray, Haime, Hollard, Johnston, Leidy, Liitken, Michelin, Milne-Edwards, Mobius, Moseley, Oersted, Phillippi, Pourtales, Quatrefages, Quoy and Gaimard, Eathke, Rotteken, Sars, Schmarda, Schneider, Stimpson, Teale, Verrill, Willemoes-Suhm, Perceval Wright, Strethill Wright, and others. As regards Coral-rerfs, the following may be consulted: Dana, Corah and Coral Islands, 1872, and &quot;Zoophytes&quot; in Report of Wilkcs s Expl. Expcd., 1848 ; Darwin, On the Structure and Distribution of Coral-Reefs, 1st ed. 1842, 2d. ed. 1874 ; Chamisso and Von Kotzebue, Entdeckungs-Rcise in die Siidsce, 1815 ; Ehrenberg, Uebcr die Natur and Bildung dor Coralleninseln und Corallenbdnke im Rothen Mccrc, Berlin, 1834 ; also works or papers by Beechey, Couthouy, Flinders, Foster, Jukes, Quoy and Gaimard, Semper, &c. As regards the Rugosa and Fossil Corals generally, the following may be consulted : Bronn, Letlicea, Gcognoslica, 1851-1856 ; De Fromentel, Introduction a fetudcdes Polijpiers Fossilcs, 1858-61 ; D Orbigny, Cours Elementaire de PaUontologie, 1849 ; Duncan, British Fossil Corals, Supplement, in the Monographs of the Palcc- ontographical Society (Tertiary and Secondary Corals), also Reports of the British Association, 1868, 1869, 1871 ; Dybowski, Monogra phic der Zoantharia Sclerodermata Rugosa aus der Silurformation Estlands, &amp;lt;kc., 1873 ; Edwards and Haime, Histoire Nalurelle dcs Coralliaires, 1857-60, also British Fossil Corals, Monographs of the Palccontographical Society ; Geinitz, Grundriss der Verstdnc- rungskunde, 1846; Kunth, Beitrdge zur Kenntniss Fossiler Korallcn, 1870; Michelin, Iconographie Zoophytologique, 1840-47 ; Miinster, Beitrdge zur Petrefaktcnkunde, 1840 ; Pictet, Traite de PaUontologie, 2d ed. 1853 ; Owen, Palaeontology, 2d ed. 1861 ; Quenstedt, Hand- buch der Petrefaktcnkunde ; Reuss, Die Fossilen Polypurien des Wiener Tertidr-bcckens, 1847. In addition to the above, descriptions of various Rugose or other fossil corals are to be found in palseontolo- gical and geological treatises, such as Billings, Palaeozoic Fossils of Canada, vol. i., 1861-65 ; De Koninck, Animaux Fossiles du Terrain Carbonifere de Bclgique, 1842-71 ; Eichwald, Lrthcca Ros- sica, 1855 ; Goldfuss, Petrefaktcn Dcutschlands, 1826-33 ; Hall, Palaeontology of New York, 1847, Geology of Iowa, 1858, and various Reports on the State Cabinet ; Hisinger, Lcthcea Succica, 1837 ; Lons- dale in Siluria, and Appendix to Murch., Yern., and Keys., Russia in Europe; M Coy, British Palceozoic Fossils, 1851, Contributions to British Palaeontology, 1854 ; Synopsis of the Carboniferous Fossils of Ireland, 1844 ; Meek and Worthen, Geological Survey of Illinois, 1866-73 ; Pander, Beitrdge zur Geognosie dcs Russischcn Rcichcs, 1830 ; Philips, Geology of Yorkshire, vol. ii., 1836, and Palceo zoic Fossils of Cornwall, Devon, &c., 1841 ; Portlock, Report on the Geology of Londonderry, &c., 1843 ; Rosmer, Die Silurische Fauna dcs Westlichen Tennessee, 1860 ; Salter, Catalogue of Cambrian and Silurian Fossils in the Geological Museum of Cambridge University, 1873 ; Sowerby, Mineral Conchology, 1822, &c. In addition to the above there are various works and memoirs, wholly or in part occupied with lists or descriptions of fossil corals, and not referred to in the foregoing, by Billings, Bronn, Castelnau, Dale-Owen, Dana, De Koninck, D Orbigny, Duncan, Dybowski, Edwards (Milne), Eichwald, Fischer von Waldheim, Fougt, Fromentel, Haime, Hall, Howse, Keyserling, King, Kunth, Kutorga, Lamarck, Le- sueur, Lindstrom, Linne, Lonsdale, Ludwig, M Coy, Morren, Morris, Nicholson, Phillips, Reuss, Roemer, Rominger, Safford, Salter, Schlotheim, Schmidt, Schweigger, Steininger, Thomson (James), Tornquist, Verril, Wahlenberg, Whitfield, Wright (Dr Thomas), Zaphrinesque, &c. (H. A N.) INDUSTRIAL USES OP CORALS. Beyond their general utility and value as sources of lime, none of the corals presents any special feature of industrial importance, ex cepting the red or precious coral (Corallium riibrum) of the Mediterranean Sea. It, however, is and has been from remote times very highly prized for jewellery, personal ornamentation, and decorative purposes generally. About the beginning of the Christian era a great trade was carried on in coral between the Mediterranean and India, where it was highly esteemed as a substance endowed with mysteri ous sacred properties. It is remarked by Pliny that, previous to the existence of the Indian demand, the Gauls were in the habit of using it for the ornamentation of their weapons of war and helmets ; but in his day, so great was the Eastern demand, that it was very rarely seen even in the regions which produced it. Among the Romans branches of coral were hung around children s necks to pre serve them from danger, and the substance had many medicinal virtues attributed to it. A belief in its potency as a charm continued to be entertained throughout medi- seval times ; and even to the present day in Italy it is worn as a preservative from the evil eye, and by females as a cure for sterility. The precious coral is found widespread on the borders and around the islands of the Mediterranean Sea. The beds are generally from 2 to 10 miles from the land, and in water of about 30 up to 130 fathoms deep; but it finds its most favourable conditions in 80 fathoms water. The most important fisheries extend along the coasts of Tunis, Algeria, and Morocco ; but red coral is also obtained in the vicinity of Naples, near Leghorn and Genoa, and on the coasts of Sardinia, Corsica, Catalonia, and Provence. It is said that it attains greater perfection in the east than in the south, and that it is rarely found in a western and never in a northern aspect. It is found attached to rocks embedded in a muddy sea bottom, in which it nourishes more than in a clear or sandy bed. In colour it varies through all shades of red, from a deep crimson to a delicate rose pink or flesh colour, fine tints of which are very rare and highly prized. It is also sometimes obtained of a milk white colour. From the Middle Ages downwards the securing of the right to the coral fisheries on the African coasts was an object of considerable rivalry among the Mediterranean communities of Europe. Previous to the 16th century they were controlled by the Italian republics. Eor a short period the Tunisian fisheries were secured by Charles V. to Spain ; but the monopoly soon fell into the hands of the French, who held the right till the Revolutionary Government in 1793 threw the trade open. For a short period (about 1806) the British Government controlled the fisheries, and now they are again in the hands of French authorities. Previous to the French Revolution much of the coral trade centred in Marseilles ; but since that period, both the pro curing of the raw material and the working of it up into the various forms in which it is used have become peculiarly Italian industries, centring largely in Naples, Rome, and Genoa. Although foreign crafts have to pay heavy dues for the right to fish on the Algerian coasts, the great majority of the vessels and crews belong to Torre del Greco. Two classes of boats engage in the pursuit, a large size of from 12 to 14 tons, manned by ten or twelve hands, and a small size of 3 or 4 tons, with a crew of five or six. The large boats, dredging from March to October, collect from 650 to 850 ft) of coral, and the small, working throughout the year, collect from 390 to 500 Ib. The Algerian reefs are divided into ten portions, of which only one is fished annually, ten years being considered sufficient for the proper growth of the coral. No reliable estimates of the amount and value of coral obtained annually exist ; but in 1873 the Algerian fisheries alone, employing 311 vessels, manned by 3150 sailors, yielded raw coral valued at 113,000. The range of value of the various qualities of coral, according to colour and size, is exceedingly wide, and not withstanding the steady Oriental demand its price is con- siderably affected by the fluctuations of fashion. While the price of the finest tints of rose pink may range from 80 to 120 per oz., ordinary red-coloured small pieces sell for about 2 per oz., and the small fragments called collette, used for children s necklaces, cost about 5s. per oz. In China large spheres of good coloured coral command high prices, being in great requisition for the button of office worn by the mandarins. It also finds a ready market throughout India and in Central Asia ; and with the negroes of Central Africa and of America it is a favourite ornamental substance.