Page:Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition, v. 6.djvu/284

256 CONDOTTIERI. The condottieri (Italian, condottiere, captain, from condotta, conduct, condurre, to lead ; Latin, conducere) were leaders of military companies, often numerous enough to constitute a large army, which they used to hire out to carry on the wars of the Italian states. The condottieri played a very important part in Italian history during the 14th and 15th centuries, especially from the middle of the 14th to the middle of the 15th. The explanation of their origin is to be sought in the special circumstances of Italy towards the close of the Middle Ages. The republics and lordships into which the country was divided were incessantly engaged in war, while the arts of peace and luxury were cultivated to such a degree that the military spirit of the people had greatly declined in comparison with the rest of Europe. In many cities, such as Milan, tyrants had begun to supersede the old republican governments, and they found it much safer to engage a mercenary army to fight their battles than to arm their own subjects. Soldiers of foreign armies, which then as afterwards not seldom overran the Italian soil, did not always return, but often stayed with their feudal leaders, and lived at free quarters. Montreal d Albarno, a gentleman of the Provence, was the first to give a definite form to these lawless bands. A severe discipline and an elaborate organization were introduced within the company itself, while in their relations to the people the most barbaric licence was permitted. Montreal himself was put to death at Home by Cola di Rienza, and Count Lando succeeded to the command. The Grand Company, as it was called, soon numbered about 7000 cavalry and 1500 select infantry, and was for some years the terror of Italy. They seem to have been Germans chiefly. On the conclu sion (1360) of the peace of Bretigny between England and France, Sir John Hawkwood, an able general, led an army of English mercenaries, called the White Company, into Italy, which, in the service of Pisa, and afterwards of Florence, took a prominent part in the confused intermin able wars of the next thirty years. Towards the end of the century the Italians began to organize armies of the same description, the first of importance being the company of St George, originated by Alberigo, count of Barbiano. The defeat of the German emperor, Rupert, by the great con dottiere, Jacopo del Vertne, due to the superior equipment and organization of the Italian army, taught the northern barbarians to respect the skill of the south. Shortly after, the organization of these mercenary armies was carried to the highest perfection by Sforza Altendolo, condottiere in the service of Naples, who had been a peasant of the Romagna, and by his rival Braccio di Montone in the service of Florence. The army and the renown of Sforza were inherited by his son Francesco Sforza, who married a natural daughter of one of the Visconti of Milan, conducted the wars of that city against Venice, and eventually became duke of Milan (1450), which his family continued to rule for some generations. Less fortunate was another great condottiere, Carrnagnola, who first served one of the Visconti, and then conducted the wars of Venice against his former masters, but at last awoke the suspicion of the Venetian oligarchy, and was put to death before the palace of St Mark (1432). Towards the end of the 15th century, when the large cities had gradually swallowed up the small states, and Italy itself was drawn into the general current of European politics, and became the battle-field of powerful armies, French, Spanish, and German, the condottieri disappeared. The soldiers of the condottieri were almost entirely cavalry, and were clad in armour from head to foot. Not being connected with the people among whom they fought by any of the ordinary ties of humanity, and given up to all the licence of the worst profession in the world, they were a dreadful scourge wherever they went. They were always ready to change sides at the prospect of higher pay. And as they were connected with each other by the interest of a common profession, and the possibility that the enemy of to-day might be the friend and fellow- soldier of to-morrow, their battles were often as bloodless as they were theatrical. Splendidly equipped armies of several thousand strong were known to fight for several hours with hardly the loss of a man. (See Symonds s Re naissance in Italy: the Age of the Despots, ch. ii.)  CONECTE,, a French Carmelite monk and preacher, was born at Rennes. He travelled through Flanders and Picardy, denouncing the vices of the clergy and the extravagant dress of the women, especially their lofty head-dresses, or hennins. He ventured to teach that he who is a true servant of God need fear no Papal curse, that the Roman hierarchy is corrupt, and that marriage is permissible to the clergy, of whom only some have the gift of continence. He was listened to by immense con gregations; and it is said that one of the means he employed to maintain his reputation as a preacher was never allowing himself to be seen in private. From Flanders, where his sumptuary reform disappeared with his departure, he passed to Italy, and, despite the opposition of Nicolas Kenton, provincial of the Carmelites, he introduced several changes into the rules of that order. But at length he was seized by order of the Pope, condemned, and burnt for heresy (1434).  CONEGLIANO, a town of Italy, in the province of Treviso, on the River Mutega, with a station on the railway from Venice to Trieste, about 36 miles north of the former city. It is commanded by a large castle on a neighbouring height, arid it possesses a cathedral, two conventual buildings, a number of benevolent institutions, and a triumphal arch erected in honour of the Emperor Francis I. of Austria. Several of the private houses were adorned with frescoes by Pordenone ; and the cathedral and the church of S. Fiore preserve the handiwork of Cinia da Conegliano, an eminent artist born in the town. Marshal Mouncey bore the title of duke of Conegliano. Population about 6000.  CONFARREATIO, a ceremony observed among the ancient Romans at the nuptials of those persons more par ticularly whose children were destined to be vestal virgins or flamines diales. Confarreatio was the most solemn of the three forms of marriage, but in later times the cere mony fell into disuse, and Cicero mentions but two, namely, coemptio and iisus. The name is said to have originated in the bride and bridegroom sharing a cake of salted wheaten bread (far or panis farreus], in the pre sence of the pontifex maxiimis, or jlamen dialis, who per formed the ceremony. This form of marriage could only be dissolved by another equally solemn ceremony, which was called disfarreatio. The names patrimi and matrimi were applied to children sprung from this kind of marriage.  CONFECTIONERY, a term of rather vague application, but which may be held to embrace all preparations which, have sugar for their basis or principal ingredient. In this way it may be said to include the preservation of fruits by means of sugar, the manufacture of jams and jellies, the art of preparing fruit-syrups and pastes, ices, and sweetened beverages, in addition to the various manufactures in which sugar is the more prominent and principal ingredient. The variety of the preparations thus indicated is unlimited; and we can here but notice the branches of the manufac ture of sugar preparations, such as lozenges, comfits, &c., which now constitute an extensive industry. The simplest form in which sugar is prepared as a sweet for eating is that of lozenges. These are simply refined sugar ground to a very fine powder, mixed with dissolved gum, and flavoured with essential oil or other ingredients. 