Page:Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition, v. 5.djvu/133

Rh of probability was worked out with some care, but little is known of its application to practice. The views of Carneades on the summum bonum were not clearly known even to his disciple and successor Clitomachus. He seems to have held that virtue consisted in the direction of activity towards the satisfaction of the natural impulses. Carneades left no written works ; his opinions seem to have been systematized by his follower Clitomachus. (See Diog. Laer. bk. iv., Cicero, and Sextus Empiricus. An admirable survey of Carneades is given by Zeller, Phil. d. Griechen, iii. pt. 1.)  CARNIOLA (in German, ?), a duchy and crown land of the Austrian empire, bounded on the N. by Carinthia, on the N.E by Styria, S.E. and S. by Croatia, and W. by Trieste, Gortz, and Istria. It has an area of 3857 English square miles-, and the civil population in 1869 amounted to 463,273, of whom 220,000 were males and 243,264 females. It is occupied in the N. by the southern slopes and offshoots of the Carinthian Alps, in the W. by the Julian Alps and the Karst or Carso Mountains, and on the S.E. frontier by the Uskoken Mountains. The highest point is the Terglou, which rises to nearly 10,000 feet, and bears on its northern declivity the only glacier in the duchy. No part of Europe presents a greater number of caves, subterranean streams, funnels, aud similar phenomena ; and the grottoes of Adelsberg, especially, are among the most extensive and interesting in the world. The principal river of the duchy is the Save, which rises in the N.W. corner, and flows south-east; its main source is in the Wochein Lake, and its more important tributaries are the Gurk, the Kanker, and the Leibnitz. The climate is rather severe, and the soil comparatively unproductive. In 1870, by official statistics, there were about 336,731 acres of arable land, 25,844 in vineyards, 406,325 in meadows and gardens, 504,879 in pasture, and 448,017 in woods. Millet is the grain principally grown, and furnishes the favourite national fare ; maize is not uncommon, but wheat and rye are rarely met with. The country is rich in mineral wealth; in 1870 it yielded 23,632 tons of quicksilver ore most of it obtained from the mines of Idria 9401 of iron ere, 7630 of copper ore, 195 of zinc and a small quantity of lead. The weaving of linen and lace is very common through the country, and distillation is carried on by a considerable number of the farmers on a small scale. Carniola is divided into the eleven districts of Adelsberg, Gottschee, Gurkfeld, Krainburg, Laibach, Litaj, Loitsch, Radmannsdorf, Rudolfswerth, Stein, and Tchernembl ; and the capital Laibach ranks as a separate division. There are fourteen towns,- twenty-three market villages, and 3231 hamlets, the most populous places being Laibach, with 22,593 inhabitants, Upper Idria 3813, Krainburg 2668, and Rudolfswerth 2068. By far the greater part of the population is of Slavonic race, the German element amounting to little more than a fifteenth of the whole. Nearly all are Roman Catholics, 956 being Protestants, and 315 adherents of the Greek Church. By the law of 1861 the Carniola diet consists of thirty-seven members, including, besides the bishop, ten appointed by the landed proprietors, eight by the towns and centres of industry, sixteen by the rural communes, and two by the commercial chambers at Laibach ; six members are sent to the imperial diet. During ths Roman empire Carniola formed part of Noricum and Pannonia. Conquered by Charlemagne, the most of the district was bestowed on the duke of Friuli ; butnn the 10th century the title of margrave of Carniola began to be borne by a family resident in the castle of Kieselberg near Krainburg. Various parts of the present territory were, however, held by other lords, such as the duke of Carinthia and the bishop of Friesing. Towards the close of the 14th century all the separate portions had come by inheritance or bequest into the hands of Rudolph IV. of Austria, who took the title of duke of Carniola ; and since then the duchy has remained a part of the Aus trian possessions, except during the short period from 1809 to 1813, when it was incorporated with the French Illyrian Provinces. In 1849 it became a crown land.  CARNIVAL. This word is probably most commonly written in English as it is here given ; but it is extremely difficult to say what is the most correct orthography. Of course for the solution of any doubt upon the subject we turn immediately to the Italian vocabularies and practice. But on doing so we find ourselves at the beginning not at the end of our difficulty. Fanfani, whose dictionary is constructed on the basis of the Delia Crusca vocabulary, gives only &quot; Carnevale.&quot; Moroni also in his ecclesiastical dictionary gives both &quot; Carn&amp;lt;?vale &quot; and &quot; Carnovale.&quot; Boiste, following the &quot; Acad^mie,&quot; gives &quot; Carnaval,&quot; as the French form. Facciolati in his appendix of low Latin terms gives only Carnisprivium. Our mode of writing &quot; Carnival&quot; would seem, therefore, to be the only possible way of spelling the word which is unsupported by the authority of other languages ; yet, if that which seems to be the most obvious, and is the most generally accepted meaning and derivation of the word, be the correct one, &quot; Carnival &quot; is surely the most natural form of a word intended to express &quot; farewell to flesh-meat,&quot; Carni-vale. But there are sufficiently strong reasons for doubting whether such be really the etymology of the word. Atd the generally received notion seems to have naturally sug gested itself to those who, understanding the term in its modern, popular, and specially non -Italian meaning, to signify the few last days of licence and feasting immediately preceding Lent, have supposed that this feasting was meant as a sort of valedictory consolation for the privations about to follow. But such is not the proper meaning of the term, and it is hardly yet popularly so understood in Italy. It is still very commonly taken there to signify the hole of the time from the first day of the year to Shrove Tuesday inclusive. But neither is this accurately correct. Carnival time properly begins with the day following the festival of the Epiphany, that is the 7th of January, and lasts till midnight on Shrove Tuesday. Now, although it may be natural enough for those who consider &quot; Carnival &quot; to mean the three or four days of revelry which immediately precede Lent to imagine that such revelry celebrates their coming forty days of abstinence, it is hardly likely that a season of the year beginning between two and three months before such &quot; farewell to flesh &quot; should be named from that circumstance. The Delia Cruscans, with Du Cange and Muratori, suppose the word to be derived from Carn- avallare (avallare, It.il. to swallow), from the greater quantity of flesh-meat used at that time of the year, But the Spaniards, following the older low Latin phrase &quot;Carnis privium,&quot; speak of Carnival as Games tollendas. And the phrase met with in the older ecclesiastical writers, Carnis privium sacerdotum (applied to the period beginning with Sexagesima Sunday, from the fact of the regular clergy of most rules having practised a partial abstinence from that day till the beginning of Lent), would not seem to favour the supposition. It is to be observed also that there is another name for the period of carnival, once quite as common in Italy as that of which we are speaking, though now nearly obsolete, Carnasciale; and Muratori says that he has nothing to oppose to those who think that Carnevale is merely another form of Carnasciale, the meaning of which is to abound in (or use unrestrictedly) flesh, came sdalare. Ferrario, on the other hand, maintains that the word waa originally merely the same with &quot; Carnalia,&quot; indicating an 