Page:Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition, v. 5.djvu/129

Rh and rescripts of a much earlier time, in which their exist- ence is recognized John V. (ob 686), Stephen V. (ob. 817), Leo IV (ob. 855) Adrian II. (ob. 872), Sergius IIL (ob. 911), Gregory VII. (ob. 1085), and Alexander IIL (ob 1181) may be cited among the early popes who con ferred privileges or special indulgences on the order. They further quote John XXII. (ob. 1334), Sixtus IV. (ob. 1484), Julius III. (ob. 1555), Pius V. (ob. 1572), Gregory XIII. (ob 1585), Sixtus V, (ob. 1590), and Clement VIII. (ob. 1605) as having all, in various documents, recognized the fact of their foundation by Elias. And, lastly, Benedict XIII. in 1725, permitted the order to erect in St Peter s, among the statues of the founders of the religious orders, that of Elias as their founder, with the inscription, Universus Ordo C armelitarum fundatori suo Sancto Elice prophetce crexit !

1em 1em 1em  CARMICHAEL, (1672-1729), a metaphysician of whom Sir William Hamilton has said that he &quot; may be regarded, on good grounds, as the real founder of the Scottish school of philosophy.&quot; He was born about the year 1672, probably in London, where his father, a Presbyterian minister who had been banished by the Scotch Privy Council for his religious opinions, was then living. Gershom was educated at Edinburgh Uni versity. He graduated there in 1691, and soon after became a Piegent at St Andrews. In 1694 he was elected, a Master in the University of Glasgow, an office that was converted into the profesorship of Moral Philosophy in 1727, when the system of Masters was abolished at Glas gow. He was an eminently successful teacher, attracting students from England as well as Scotland, but his warm temper led him into various disputes with the principal and other college authorities, in consequence of which he was more than once suspended from his functions. His works are Breviuscula Introduclio ad Logicam, a treatise on logic and the psychology of the intellectual powers, in which among other things he affirms that all knowledge may be resolved into immediate judgments known in their own light ; Synopsis Theologize Naturalis ; and an edition of Puffendorff De Officio Hominis et Ciris, with notes and supplements of high value. Carmichael died in 1729.  CARMINE, a pigment of a bright red colour obtained from cochineal. It may be prepared by exhausting cochineal with boiling w r ater and then treating the clear solution with alum, cream of tartar, or acid oxalate of potassium ; the colouring and animal matters present in the liquid are thus precipitated. Or an aqueous decoction of black cochineal is made, and treated with stannic chloride : a slow deposition of carmine then takes place ; the liquid is poured off, and the carmine dried. Another process is to add to 15 quarts of boiling river water 1 ft) of cochineal, and a clear solution of 6 drachms of carbonate of soda in 1 fib of water, and boil for thirty minutes. The liquid is then cooled, and 6 drachms of powdered alum are stirred in. After twenty minutes the resulting scarlet liquid is decanted, mixed well with the white of two eggs beaten up in i & of water, and again boiled for a short time ; it is then left quiet for about half an hour, after which it is decanted, and the carmine which has been deposited is drained on a cloth, spread out on plates with an ivory or silver spatula, covered with white paper, and dried. By this process about 1 J oz. of carmine is obtained from 1 5) of cochineal. Another method is to add 3 oz. of nitre and 4 oz. of acid oxalate of potassium to an in fusion of 1 ft of cochineal, and to boil for ten minutes. After four hours standing, the liquid is poured into flat dishes, where it is left for three weeks. At the end of this time it is freed of the coating of mould formed upon it, and is drawn off, leaving a firm layer of carmine of fine colour. There are several other modes of preparing carmine, in some of which gelatine is used to assist its precipitation. The quality of carmine is affected by the temperature and the degree of illumination during its preparation, sunlight being requisite for the production of a brilliant hue. It differs also according to the amount of alumina present in it. It is sometimes adulterated with cinnabar, starch, and other materials ; from these the carmine can be separated by dissolving it in ammonia. Good carmine should crumble readily between the fingers when dry. Chemically, carmine is said to be a compound of colouring matter and a special animal piinciple with an acid from one of the agents employed to precipitate them. 