Page:Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition, v. 4.djvu/830

752 the lives of Albertus Magnus and Aquinas, partly by his intense love of learning. He was placed at first in the convent at Morgentia in Abruzzo, and after completing his course of philosophy was transferred to Cosenza, there to study theology. He soon became discontented with his teachers, for he earnestly desired to read, not only the works of Aristotle, but the book of nature, which was the language of God. An accident drew his attention to the work De Rerum Natura of Telesius, which he read with great eagerness. He Avas delighted with its freedom of speech and its appeal to nature rather than to authority. His first work in philosophy, for he was already the author of numerous poems, was a defence of Telesius against the attacks of Marta, an Aristotelian. It was styled Pkilo- sophia scnsihus demonstrata, and appeared in 1591. The freedom and boldness of his attacks upon established authority soon brought him into disfavour with the clergy. He left Naples, where he had been residing, and proceeded to Rome For seven years he led an unsettled life, wandering through Padua, Bologna, Venice and other towns, everywhere attracting attention by the brilliancy of his talents and the boldness of his teaching. Yet Campanella was strictly orthodox, held the established faith, and was an uncompromising advocate of the Pope s temporal power He returned to Stilo in 1598. In the following year he was arrested and committed to prison. What was the immediate cause of this is not clearly known. According to the most common report the motives for his imprison ment were entirely political. He had joined himself to those who desired to free Naples from Spanish tyranny, and had excited them by his fiery eloquence and independ ence of spirit. His friend Naude e, however, declares that this was a complete mistake, and that the expressions used by Campanella, which were interpreted as revolu tionary, had quite a different reference and signification. Whether from error or not, the unfortunate philosopher was committed to prison, and remained there for twenty-seven years, suffering much torture and misery. Yet his spirit was unbroken ; he composed sonnets, and prepared a series of works, forming a complete system of philosophy, which were published at a later date. During the latter years of his long confinement he was kept in the castle of St Elmo, and was allowed considerable liberty. There seem, indeed, to have been great doubts even in the minds of those who imprisoned him whether he had clone anything deserving- such a punishment. Still he w r as looked upon as dangerous, and it was thought better to restrain his boldness. At last, in 1626, he was set at liberty For some three years he was confined in the chambers of the Inquisition, but in 1629 he was fairly free. He was well treated at Rome by the Pope, but he made enemies ; and, profiting by the lessons of experience, he thought it well to avoid future danger by taking flight from Rome. He came to Paris in 1634 under the protection of the French ambassador to Italy, and was received with marked favour by Cardinal Richelieu, The last few years of his life he spent in preparing a complete edition of his works ; but only the first volume appears to have been published. He died on the 26th of May 1639. The philosophy of Campanella is in many respects inte resting and important, but it has much that is fantastic, and is wanting in unity and completeness. With Telesius he agreed in rejecting the Aristotelian method of inference. According to him truth or certainty is only to be found in immediate intuition. The sciences are not to be con structed from definitions by deduction, but proceed by induction to definition, which in the natural order comes last. The syllogism is only useful for expounding ; the universal rule which it involves is always a result of induction, and the particular subsumed under it is itself part of the induction. Our knowledge begins in doubt. We know neither the past nor the future ; even in the present we only know things as they appear to be, not as they are. The first proposition in a theory of cognition is that I myself think ; the certainty of self-consciousness is the primary truth. With all this freedom of philosophizing Campanella pre served a completely orthodox respect for revealed religion ; he aimed indeed at a system which should embrace in one comprehensive scheme religious and philosophical prin ciples. His view of God is not far removed from that of Bruno; he lays stress upon the divine unity and omnipre sence, and as he is convinced that community of action is only possible where there is identity of being, he is driven to an apparently pantheistic conclusion. God is the ultimate unit ; His three manifestations may be called power, wisdom, and love. He alone has pure being ; all other things created by or emanating from Him are limited, i.e., have non-being. All things are of the same nature, otherwise there could be no mutual action ; there is a universally diffused life and sensibility. In his natural philosophy Campanella mainly follows Telesius, and lays down as fundamental forces heat and cold, in their concrete form, sun and earth. By these all things are formed. The soul of man is in nature corporeal, but is immortal, being endowed with a striving after happiness never attained in this life. In practical philosophy Campanella was an extreme reformer. In his Civitas /Solis he sketches an ideal state, in which principles of communism are fully carried out. He contends for a community of goods and wives, for state control of population, and for a universal military training. The king in his ideal state is called Hoh, i.e., Metaphysics; his ministers have names meaning respectively Power, Wisdom, and Might. The whole work is cold and abstract, utterly wanting in the rich practical detail of its prototype, the Utopia.

{{11fine|A long list of Campanella s works is given by Echanl, A pp. to Cypriano, Vita Campanella:, who enumerates eighty-two, and by Campanella himself in the first vol. of his collected works. The most important were De Sensu Rerum, 1620 ; Eealis Philosophic Epiloyisticce Partes IV. (containing Civitas Solis), 1623; Athcismus Tritimphatus, 1631 ; Philoso})Jiict llationalis, 1637 ; Philosophin Univcrsalis scu Mctaphysica, 1638; DC Monarchia Hispanica, 1640, translated into English.}|undefined} 1em  CAMPANIA, an ancient province of Italy, separated from Latiuiu on the N. by the Massican Hills, and from Samnium on the E. by the Apennines, and bounded on the W. by the Tyrrhenian Sea, and on the S. by Lucania. It was distinguished by its fertility, beauty, and genial climate, and by the excellence of its harbours. It consists of a plain, broken only by a low volcanic range of hills, of which the chief is Mons Gaurus, and by Mount Vesuvius. The original inhabitants of Campania were Oscans or Ausonians. The first settlers were the Greeks who founded Cuma?, and afterwards Dictearchia, Paltepolis, and Neapolis. It seems pretty certain that the next invaders were the Etruscans, and that they founded Capua and Nola. TH Etruscans in turn had to give place to the Samnitcs. But both these invaders were few in number; and the Campanian people continued to be of essentially Oscan race. The remains of their language are, indeed, our best specimen of Oscan. In the 4th century B.C. war broke out with the Romans, and in 340 B.C., by the battle of 