Page:Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition, v. 4.djvu/668

598 presence of which is made known by the appearance of a fine powder Jying underneath the infected specimens. Insects in this condition should be thoroughly soaked in a solution of spirits of wine and camphor. The appearance of grease on thick-bodied moths is by no means uncommon, but may be removed by dipping the insect in spirits of turpentine and embedding it in calcined magnesia till dry. The collector should be careful to keep a register of all his specimens, giving the localities where they were found, and recording any observations that may have been made at the time on their food, habits, &c. A small ticket attached to the pin of each specimen, and bearing its number in the register, is the best way of connecting the specimens in the cabinet with the entries in the register.  BUTTMANN, (1764-1829), a German philologist, was born at Frankfort-on-the-Main in 1764. He was educated at the gymnasium in his native town and at the university of Gottingen. In 1789 he obtained an appointment in the library at Berlin, and for some years he edited Spener s Journal. In 1796 he became professor at the Joachimsthal Gymnasium, a post which he held for twelve years. In 1806 he was admitted to the Academy of Sciences, and in 181 1 was made secretary of the Historico- Philological Section. He died in 1829. Buttmann s writings gave a great impetus to the scientific study of the Greek language, and his grammar is still a work of value. The first edition of the Griechische Graminatik appeared in 1792, and in 1863 the book was in its 21st edition. It has been translated into English. The Lexilogus, a valuable study on some words of difficulty occurring principally in the poems of Homer and Hesiod, was published in 2 vols., 1818-25. The English translation by Fishlake has passed through five editions Buttmann s other works were Ausfiihrliche Griechische Sprachlehre, 2 vols., 1819-27; Mythologies, a collection of essays, 1828-9 ; and editions of some classical authors. Of these last the most im portant are Demosthenes in Midiam, 1823, and the con tinuation of Spalding s Quintilian.  BUTTON, from the French bouton, a small piece of metal or other material used to connect different parts of a garment together by means of a button-hole, and also used for ornamentation. These apparently insignificant articles have produced a great alteration in our style of dress, for without them it would have been impossible to have reduced the flowing robes of our forefathers into our present simple costume. . By this process we have lost the picturesque, as far as our garments are concerned, but have gained in com pactness and utility. Indeed, the occupations of the present age could not be carried on in the togas and dresses of ancient times. The button manufacture did not assume any special form until towards the close of the reign of Elizabeth. In paintings, commencing with the 14th century, studs or buttons appear as ornaments on the dresses of both sexes ; but they were ornaments merely, being drawn without button-holes, and placed where they could serve no practical purpose. They are in general represented as of gold or ivory. At the commencement of the 17th century the trade had greatly increased, but the making of buttons by the needle seems to have been the principal method. Matthew Boulton, who became the senior partner in the afterwards celebrated firm of Boulton and Watt, as early as 1745, introduced great improvements in the manufacture of buttons, particularly inlaid and steel. &quot;When the Soho Works were established near Birmingham, one of the departments was occupied in making steel buttons with facets, that produced a hundred and forty guineas the gross. Gilt buttons came into fashion shortly after the accession of George IIL A large shipping trade in buttons was then carried on with the Continent and America, and the workmen s wages at Birmingham averaged from 2 to 4 per week. John Taylor, originally a cabinetmaker, appears to have had a principal hand in promoting improvements in this industry at that time, as far as gilt, plated, and lacquered buttons are concerned. The value of those turned out weekly in his establishment is said to have been about 800. Ralph Heaton improved the making of shanks, a separate branch, shortly before the commencement of the present century. The metal button trade was in a very flourishing con dition, when, indirectly, Lord Nelson may be said to have been the means of overthrowing it. The late B. Sanders was in easy circumstances in Denmark when he was ruined by the bombardment of Copenhagen under our great naval commander. Sanders then came to Birmingham to seek such competence as energy and perseverance could afford. He started in the button manufacture, at first in a small way, introducing a covered button made of cloth or lasting, with an iron shank. His son, of the same name, invented a flexible shank button, that is, one with a tuft of canvas protruding from the back instead of a shank, through which the needle could pass in any direction. It was patented in 1825 and had an enormous sale. The Sanders took out another patent for a similar button covered with silk. A fancy silk button with a central ornament was patented by William Elliott in 1837, which had a great run, so much so that sixty looms were employed in London in making the special material required ; and Elliott secured a fortune, although his patent was contested and many imitations were started. But all these kinds of buttons were found to wear on the edges, to remedy which John Chatwin patented a corded edge button. It is said that horn buttons were used as early as 1801, but we find from old Birmingham directories that there were horn-button makers as far back as 1777. At the former period the commonest qualities were 5/d. per gross. Hutton in his History of Birmingham refers to &quot; our grandmothers &quot; wearing horn buttons nearly the size of a crown piece. The hoof or horn button is cut into form and dyed and pressed into beautiful designs. This great improvement, however, appears to have been effected by M. Emile Bassot of Paris, who intro duced important changes resulting in material progress. The manufacture is still prosecuted in England, but it is of secondary importance. The materials of which buttons are made are as various as their forms. Gold, silver, and other metals, glass, porcelain, horn, bone, india-rubber, mother-of-pearl, and other nacreous productions of shell-fish, various woods, vegetable ivory, &c., are employed ; and for covered but tons, lasting, brocade, twist, velvet, silk, mohair, &c. The Birmingham Directory for 1784 mentions paper buttons; and, according to the same authority, a button was produced by &quot; an artist of eminence,&quot; which was inlaid with divers other metals ; it was first attempted about sixty years &quot;previously ; and then, &quot; though in no respect so complete as at present, met with great arid merited encouragement.&quot; Buttons have been often expensively jewelled, and the gold and silver are plain or ornamented, sometimes resembling drops in filigree-work. There was one in use in England about the middle of the last century 