Page:Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition, v. 3.djvu/153

Rh Milan and Venice rosa against their rulers, and expelled the Austrian troops. This was followed by a general rising throughout Lombardy and Venice. The insurgents found an ally in Charles Albert, king of Sardinia, who came with an army to their assistance, and declared war against the empire. At first he succeeded in driving the Austrians back to the northern frontier of Italy; but General Radetzky, having received reinforcements, vanquished him in several engagements, and compelled him to flee to his own dominions, and conclude a truce with the victors. This was followed by the reconquest of Milan and the whole of Lombardy. Venice withstood the besieging army of the Austrians for some months, but was at length obliged to surrender. In Bohemia the Czechs or Slavonic party determined to obtain redress against the Germanising measures of the Government, and forwarded a petition to the emperor, demanding a united and independent national assembly for Bohemia and Moravia, independent municipal institutions, and an equal share in public offices with the German part of the population. An evasive answer was returned, and the citizens of the capital rose in insurrection. A national assembly of delegates of the Slavonians in all parts of the empire was summoned to meet at Prague. Three hundred made their appearance, and the assembly was opened in the beginning of June. The efforts of the military to maintain peace excited the enmity of the citizens, and they petitioned for the removal of the commander, Prince Windischgratz. Meanwhile a collision took place between the Slavonic militia and the regular troops. The Germans joined with the military, and the insurrection raged for five days; the town was bombarded and taken, and the leaders dispersed or taken prisoners.

In Hungary the National Diet had passed measures in favour of a responsible ministry, a perfect equality of civil rights, religious toleration, the formation of a national guard, and abolition of the censorship of the press. The emperor gave his consent to these measures; but a strong Austrian party in the country, chiefly Slavonians, was opposed to them, and, instigated and supported by the Austrian Government, they broke out in open revolt. Jellachich, the ban or governor of Croatia, was the leader of the insurgents, and collecting an army of 65,000 men, he marched on towards Pesth. An army was speedily raised by the Hungarians to meet him, and a battle was fought within 25 miles of the capital on 29th September, in which Jellachich was beaten. The emperor now openly declared against the Hungarians, annulled the decrees of the Diet, suspended the civil authorities, and appointed Jellachich commander of the army. The Diet, denying the authority of the emperor, organised a committee of safety, and elected Kossuth president. This was equivalent to a declaration of war, and an Austrian army was ordered out against them. The people of Vienna, sympathising with the Hungarians, rose in arms, when the garrison of that city departed for Hungary (6th October). A deputation waited on the minister of war, Latour, demanding their recall, and on his refusal they took the arsenal by storm, and murdered him. The National Diet, which had met on the 22d of July, now declared its sittings permanent, and elected a committee of public safety. It sent an address to the emperor asking for a new ministry, the revocation of the edict against the Hungarians, the dismissal of Jellachich, and an amnesty for the rioters. The emperor, who had returned from Innsbruck to Vienna in June, returned an evasive answer, and fled to Olmütz. The people in the capital armed themselves under the leader ship of General Bern, and prepared to resist the impending attack of the army. The garrison, after having retired outside the limits of the city, was joined by Jellachich's horde of Croatians and by the army of Windischgratz. On 23d October, an army of 100,000 men appeared before Vienna, and the city was summoned to surrender. This the people refused to do, and the attack was commenced on the 28th, when the city was set on fire in many places. The next day a part of the suburbs was taken, and the leaders began to think of surrendering when the news of a Hungarian army hastening to their relief inspired them with fresh courage. This force, however, was attacked and put to flight by Jellachich (30th October), and next day the city was taken by storm, after a desperate struggle, which was attended with immense slaughter. On 22d November a new ministry was formed, of which Prince Schwarzenberg was president; and on 2d December the Emperor Ferdinand was induced to abdicate the throne. His brother, Francis Charles, who was his legal successor, likewise renounced his right in favour of his son, Francis Joseph, who was proclaimed emperor under the title of Francis Joseph I.

The war in Hungary was renewed by Windischgratz, who crossed the Leitha, and after several successful engagements entered the capital of that country (January 1849), the Hungarian Government and one division of the army having departed eastward to Debreczin, while the other under Görgei retired northward towards Waitzen. The Austrian general, instead of pursuing them, remained inactive for seven weeks at Pesth, and thus afforded them time to organise. In Transylvania General Bern gained a decisive victory over the Austrians in that territory, and also defeated and put to flight a Russian force that had come to their assistance. At length Windischgratz moved forward towards Debreczin, and met the Hungarians at Kapolna, where an obstinate and bloody but indecisive battle was fought (26th February). Next day the Austrians, having received reinforcements, renewed the fight, and the Hungarians were obliged to retire. The latter having recruited their forces, another obstinate battle was fought near Godolo (5th April), in which the Austrians were defeated, as they were in several subsequent engagements, so that they were compelled to abandon the capital and recross the Danube, leaving a small garrison at Buda, which after wards surrendered. Had the victorious army now marched on to Vienna they would doubtless have succeeded in bringing the Austrians to terms; but disputes among the rulers and dissensions among the generals prevented such a course. In June Prince Paskewitch crossed the Galician frontier at the head of a Russian army of 130,000 men; and General Haynau, who now had the command of the Austrian troops, was joined by a Russian corps under General Palutin. The Hungarians were unable to contend against these forces, and had again to leave their capital, the seat of the Government being transferred to Szegedin. Driven from this place, the army made a stand at Temesvar, but were defeated with great slaughter (9th August), and again, two days later, at Arad. On 13th August the Hungarian general, Görgei, who had been named dictator, surrendered to the Russians. Hungary was now treated as a conquered country, and the greatest cruelties were practised against the people by the Austrian general, Haynau. The military and parliamentary leaders were shot or hanged, and the prisons filled with unhappy victims. In the meantime the war in Italy was renewed by the king of Sardinia. He was, however, defeated at Mortara (21st March) by the Austrian general, Radetzky, and again at Novara (23d March), when he abdicated in favour of his son, Victor Emmanuel, with whom a peace was concluded. Venice held out against the Austrians till 23d August, when it was forced to surrender.

The congress which, since the final struggle in Vienna, had been adjourned to Kremsier, was dissolved (March 4-, 