Page:Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition, v. 23.djvu/896

Rh study, where the students give evidence of having made satisfactory progress. Considerable modifications have also taken place in the courses of study, nearly all the colleges having now adopted the system of "parallel courses," and the principle of selection between these. Female education has received in America an extension which it has attained in no other country, and one of the colleges (that of Wellesley) numbers several hundred students. Since the war of 1861 a greatly increased attention has been given throughout the universities to physical training and athletic exercises, and excellent gymnasia, constructed on German models, have been erected.

The accompanying table (p. 857), prepared by the council of education for the year 1883–84, shows the distribution of these centres in the different States, together with their numbers, revenues, libraries, and the estimated value of their endowments.

Authorities.—On the earlier history and organization of the mediæval universities, the student should consult F. C. von Savigny, Gesch. d. romischen Rechts im JUittelalter, 1 vols., 1826-51; for the university of Paris, Dfi Boulay, Historia Unirersitatis Parisiensis, 6 vols., Paris, 1GC5, Crevicr, Hist, de I Universite de J J aris, 7 vols., Paris, 1701, and C. Jourdain, Hist, de I Unicersite de J aris au XVII*" et ait XVI!!" Siecle, Paris, 1S62; of these the work of Du Boulay (Bulams) is one of great research and labour, but wanting in critical judgment, while that of Crevier is little more than a readable outline drawn from the tORDOr. The views of Du Boulay have been challenged on many important points by P. H. Dcnifle in the first volume of his Die Universitiiten ties Mittelalters bis 1UM (1885), and more particularly on those relating to the organization of the early universities. The work of Meiners, Gesch. d. Entstrhung u. Entwickelvngder hofien Schulen tinsers Erdtheils, 4 vols. (1802-5), must be regarded as almost superseded as a general history, and the same may be said of Iluber's work on the English universities, Die eiujlischen Universitiiten (Ca.ssel, 1JS3H-4 1 )), translated by F. W. Newman, 3 vols. (1845). Much useful criticism on both the English and the Continental universities will bo found in Sir W. Hamilton's Discussions, Ac., 1853. For the German universities, the works of Zarnck^/HedeuttcAm Universitiiten im Mittelalter (Leipsic, 1857), and Paulson, Gesc/i. d. gelchrten Unterrichts anf den deutschen Sc/itilen nnd Universitiiten (Leipsic, 1885), will bo found the most trust worthy, the former for the mediaeval, the latter for the modern period. To these maybe added two articles by Paulsen in vol. xlv. of Von Sybel's Historische Zeitschrifl: (1) G Kindling " and (2) u Organisation u.Lebensordnungen d. deutschen Universitatcnim Mittelaltcr"; Tholuck, Das akademische Leben des 17 Jahrhunderts, 2 vols. (Halle, 1853-54); Von Kuuiner, Gesch. d. fiidayogik, vol. iv. (4th ed., 1872); Dolch, Gesch. d. deutschen Studententlnims (1858); Sybel, Die deMschen Universitiiten (2d ed., 1874); and Dr J. Conrad, The German Universities for the last Fifty Years, translated by Hutchinson, with preface by James Bryce, M.P. (Glasgow, 1885). For Oxford, there are the laborious collections by Anthony Wood, History and Antiquities of the University and of the Colleges and Halls of Oxford, edited with continuation by Hev. J. Gutch, 5 vols. (1780-UG), and Athene and fasti Oxonienses, edited by Dr P. Bliss, 4 vols. (1813-20); also the publications of the Oxford Historical Society; A History of the University of Oxford from the Earliest Times to 1530, by H. C. Maxwell Lyte (188G); and Statutes of the University of Oxford compiled in 1G3G tinder Authority of Archbishop Laud, ed. Griffiths (Oxford, 1S88). For Cambridge, the researches of C. II. Cooper, greatly surpassing those of Wood in thoroughness and impartiality, are comprised in three series: Antialt of Cambridge, 4 vols. (1842-52); (2) Athena Cantabrigienscs, 1500-1CO!), 2 vols. (1858-G1); (3) Memorials of Cambridge, 3 vols. (new ed., 1884). The Architectural History of the University of Cambridge and of the Colleges, by the late Robert Willis, edited and continued by J. Willis Clark, 4 vols. (188C), is a work of admirable thoroughness and completeness. To these may be added Cambridge in the Seventeenth Century; Lives of Nicholas Ferrar and Matthew Robinson, by Prof. John E. B. Mayor, 2 vols. (1855, 1S5G); and Baker's History of the College of St John the Evangelist, Cambridge, edited by Mayor, 2 vols. (I860); t also J. B. Slullinger, History of the University of Cambridge from the Earliest Times to Accession of Charles J., 2 vols. (1873-85). For both universities sec the Documents issued by the Oxford and Cambridge Commissions of 1S58; also the Wood, Ilearne, Tanner, and liawlinson MSS., and the Cottonian, Harluiuii, Lansdowne (especially Kennett and Strype), Baker, and Cole collections.

Aberdeen (1494), 843, 854.

Abo (1640), 852.

Adelaide (1874), 856.

Agram (1869), 852.

Alcala (1499), 851.

Altdorf (1578), 845.

American universities, 857.

Amsterdam (1877), 850.

Angers (1305), 839.

Athens (1837), 852.

Arezzo (circ. 1215), 836.

Avignon (1303), 839.

Bamberg (1648), 846.

Basel (1459), 842, 851.

Berlin (1809), 848.

Bern (1834), 851.

Bologna (12th cent), 832.

Bombay (1857), 856.

Bonn (1818), 848.

Bordeaux (1441), 842.

Bourges (1465), 842.

Breslau (1702), 846.

Brussels (1834), 850.

Budapest (1635), 852.

Caen (1437), 841.

Cahors (1332), 839.

Calcutta (1857), 856.

Cambridge (12th cent.), 838, 852. Cape of Good Hope (1873), 857.

Christiania (1811), 850.

Coimbra (1309), 839, 851.

Cologne (1388), 840.

Colombia College, U.S. (1754), 857.

Copenhagen (1479), 842.

Cornell, U.S. (1865), 857.

Cracow (1364), 840. Czernowitz (1875), 852.

Debreczin College (1531), 852.

Dorput (1032). 845.

Durham (1832). 853.

Edinburgh (1582). 846, 854.

Erfurt ( 1375), 840.

Erlangen (1743), 848.

Ferrara (1391), 837.

Florence (1320), 837.

France (1794), 851.

Francker(1585), 850.

Frankfort-on-the-Oder (1506), 843.

Freiburg (1455), 842.

Fünfkirchen (1367), 840.

Geneva (1876), 851.

Ghent (1816), 850.

Giessen (1607), 845. Glasgow (1453), 843, 854.

Gottingen (1736), 847.

Graz (1586), 851.

Greifswald (1456), 842.

Grenoble (1339), 839.

Groningen (1614), 850.

Halle (1093), 847.

Harderwijk (1600), 850.

Harvard College (1638), 857.

Heidelberg (1385), 840.

Helmstädt (1575), 645.

Helsingfors (1640), 852.

Huesca (1354), 839.

Ingolstadt (1459), 842.

Innsbruck (1692), 846.

Ireland, Royal University of (1880), 855.

Jena (1558), 845.

Johns Hopkins (1867), 857.

Kazan (1804), 852.

Kharkoff (1804), 852.

Kieff (1803), 852.

Kiel (1665), 850.

Klausenburg (1872), 852.

Kolozsvar (1872), 852.

Königsberg (1544), 844.

Leipsic (1409). 841.

Lemberg (1784), 851. Lerida (1300), 839.

Leyden (1575), 850.

Liege (1816), 850.

London (1826), 854.

Louvain (1426), 841.

Lund (1668), 850.

M'Gill, Canada (1821), 856

Madras (1857), 856.

Madrid (1837), 851.

Mainz (1476), 842.

Marburg (1527), 844.

Melbourne (1853), 856.

Modena (12th cent.), 836.

Montpellier (1289), 838.

Montreal (1821), 856.

Moscow (1755), 852.

Munich (1826), 848.

Nantes (1403), 842.

Naples (1225), 836.

New Zealand (1870), 856.

Odessa (1865), 852.

Ofen (1389). 840.

Olmütz (1581), 851.

Orange (1365), 839.

Orleans (13th cent.), 838.

Otago (1869), 856.

Oxford (12th cent.), 837,

Padua (1222), 836. Palencia (1214), 839.

Paris (12th cent.), 834, 846, 810.

Pavia (1361), 836.

Pennsylvania (1751), 857.

Perpignan (1379), 839.

Perugia (1308), 837.

Placenza (1248), 836.

Poitiers (1431), 841.

Prague (1347), 839, 846.

Princeton (1746). 857.

Punjab (18S3), 850.

Queen's University, Ireland (1850), 855.

Queen's University, Kingston (1841), 857.

Reggio (12th cent.), 830.

Rinteln (1621), 845.

Rome (1303), 836.

Rostock (1419), 841.

St Andrews (1411), 843, 854.

St David's College, Lampeter (1822), 856.

St Petersburg (1819), 852.

Salamanca (1243), 839.

Salerno (9th cent.), 832.

Salzburg (1023). 851.

Seville (1254), 839.

Siena (1357), 837.

Strasburg (1021), 845, 851.

Sydney (1851), 856.

Toronto (1827), 856.

Toulouse (1233), 838.

Treves (1450), 842.

Treviso (1318), 837.

Trinity College, Dublin (1501), 855.

Trinity College. Toronto (1851), 857.

Tübingen (1476), 842.

Upsala (1477), 842, 850.

Utrecht (1034), 850.

Valence (1452), 842.

Valladolid (1340), 839.

Vercelli (circ. 1228), 836.

Vicenza (1204), 836.

Victoria, Manchester (1880), 854.

Victoria, Canada (1836), 856.

Vienna (1364), 840, 851.

Vilna (1803), 852.

Wales, colleges in, 856.

Wittenberg (1502), 843.

Yale College (1701), 857.

Zágidb (1809), 852.

Zürich (1832), 851.

 UNTERWALDEN is one of the Forest cantons of Switzerland, ranking as sixth in the Confederation. It is composed of two valleys through which run two streams both called the Aa, and which are called Obwald and Nidwald from their position with regard to the great forest of the Kernwald in which they are situated. In old documents the inhabitants are always described as "homines intramontani," whether "vallis superioris" (Obwald) or "vallis inferioris" (Nidwald). The total area of Obwald is 183·3 square miles, 154·2 of which are classed as productive (forests 37·6), while of the remainder 3·8 are covered by glaciers and 4 3 by lakes. The area of Nidwald is 112·1 square miles, 84·1 being productive (forests 27·7); of the rest the cantonal bit of the Lake of Lucerne covers 12·8. The highest point in the canton is the Titlis (10,627 feet) in Obwald.

The census of 1880 returned the population of Obwald as 15,356, an increase of 941 on 1870, and that of Nidwald as 11,992, an increase of 291. In both the women have a small majority over the men. The native tongue of practically the whole population is German (15,254 in Obwald, 11,869 in Nidwald), and they are nearly all Roman Catholics (15,078 in Obwald, 11,901 in Nidwald). Till 1814 the canton was in the diocese of Constance since that time it has (like Uri) formed legally part of no diocese, though it is provisionally administered by the bishop of Chur. The capital of Obwald is Sarnen (4039 inhabitants), Kerns (2500) being the only other place which is more than a village; that of Nidwald is Stanz (2210). The population is purely agricultural and pastoral. In Obwald the forests are remarkable, in Nidwald the fiery energy of the inhabitants. In educational matters the standard is not very high, but is being gradually raised. At the head of the Nidwald valley (but legally in Obwald) stands the great Benedictine monastery of Engelberg, founded in 1121. There are no railways, but one is being made from Lucerne through Obwald over the Brünig Pass to Meyringen in Bern.

Historically Obwald was part of the Aargau, and Nidwald of the Zürichgau. In both there were many great landowners (specially the abbey of Murbach and the Hapsburgs) and few free men; while the fact that the Hapsburgs were counts of the Aargau and the Zürichgau further delayed the development of political freedom. Both took part in the risings of 1245–47, and in 1248 Sarnen was threatened by the pope with excommunication for opposing its hereditary lord, the count of Hapsburg. The alleged cruelties com mitted by the Hapsburgs do not, however, appear in history till