Page:Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition, v. 23.djvu/880

Rh in cases of legal disputes were abolished. From this time the university of Caen was distinguished by its loyal spirit and firm resistance to ultramontane pretensions; and, although swept away at the French Revolution, it was afterwards restored, owing to the sense of the services it had thus once rendered to the national cause. No especially notable circumstances characterize the foundation of the university of Bordeaux (1441) or that of Valence (1452), but that of Nantes, which received its charter from Pius II. in 1463, is distinguished by the fact that it did not receive the ratification of the king of France, and the conditions under which its earlier traditions were formed thus closely resemble those of Poitiers. It seems also to have been regarded with particular favour by Pius II., a pontiff who was at once a ripe scholar and a writer upon education. He gave to Nantes a notable body of privileges, which not only represent an embodiment of all the various privileges granted to universities prior to that date, but afterwards became, with their copious and somewhat tautological phraseology, the accepted model for the great majority of university charters, whether issued by the pope or by the emperor, or by the civil authority. The bishop of Nantes was appointed head of the university, and was charged with the special protection of ite privileges against all interference from whatever quarter. The bull for the foundation of the university of Bourges was given in 1465 by Paul II. at the request of Louis XI. and his brother. It confers on the community the same privileges as those enjoyed by the other universities of France. The royal sanction was given at the petition of the citizens; but, from reasons which do not appear, they deemed it necessary further to petition that their charter might also be registered and enrolled by the parlement of Paris.

In Germany, the first of the universities representing the new influences above referred to is that of Greifswald. A wealthy burgomaster, who had graduated as a master of arts at Rostock, was the chief mover; and, his proposal being cordially seconded by the city council, the duke of the province, and certain abbots of neighbouring monasteries, the necessary bull was obtained from Calixtus III. (29th May 1456). The first session was commenced in October of the same year. Three colleges were at the same time founded,—two for masters of arts, as at Leipsic and Rostock, and a third for jurists. The chairs in the different faculties were distributed as follows: theology 3, jurisprudence 5, medicine 1, arts 4,—the number of jurists showing that the study of the civil law still obtained a certain preponderance. The university of Freiburg was founded by the archduke Albert, brother of the emperor Frederick III.,—the papal bull being given 20th April 1455, and the imperial ratification in the following year. The first session was opened in 1460, under the presidency of Matthew Hummel, a privy councillor, and the original numbers soon received considerable additions by secessions from Vienna and from Heidelberg. The endowment was further augmented by an annual allowance from the city council, and by certain canonries and livings attached to neighbouring parishes. In the same year, and probably in a spirit of direct rivalry, was opened the university of Basel. The cathedral school in that ancient city, together with others attached to the monasteries, afforded a sufficient nucleus for a "studium," and Pius II., who, as Æneas Sylvius, had been a resident in the city, was easily prevailed upon to grant the charter (12th November 1459). In the character of its endowments, and in the relative importance attached to the study of the civil law, Basel much resembled Greifswald, but its success throughout the 15th century was marred by the languid character of the support afforded it by the civic authorities. Before he had signed the bull for the foundation of the university of Basel, Pius II., at the request of duke William of Bavaria, had issued another bull for the foundation of a university at Ingolstadt (7th April 1459). But it was not until 1472 that the work of teaching was actually commenced there. Some long-existing prebends, founded by former dukes of Bavaria, were appropriated to the endowment, and the chairs in the different faculties were distributed as follows:—theology 2, jurisprudence 3, medicine 1, arts 6,—arts in conjunction with theology thus obtaining the preponderance. As at Caen, twenty-two years before, an oath of fidelity to the Roman pontiff was imposed on every student admitted to a degree. That this proviso was not subsequently abolished, as at Caen, is a feature in the history of the university of Ingolstadt which was attended by important results. Nowhere did the Reformation meet with more stubborn resistance, and it was at Ingolstadt that the Counter-Reformation was commenced. In 1556 the Jesuits made their first settlement in the university.

The next two universities took their rise in the archiepiscopal seats of Treves and Mainz. That at Treves received its charter as early as 1450; but the first academical session did not commence until 1473. Here the ecclesiastical influences appear to have been unfavourable to the project. The archbishop demanded 2000 florins as the price of his sanction. The cathedral chapter threw difficulties in the way of the appropriation of certain livings and canonries to the university endowment; and so obstinate was their resistance that in 1655 they succeeded in altogether rescinding the gift on payment of a very inadequate sum. It was not until 1722 that the assembly of deputies, by a formal grant, relieved the university from the difficulties in which it had become involved. The university of Mainz, on the other hand, was almost entirely indebted to the archbishop Diether for its foundation. It was at his petition that Sixtus IV. granted the charter, 23d November 1476; and Diether, being himself an enthusiastic humanist, thereupon circulated a letter, couched in elegant Latinity, addressed to students throughout his diocese, inviting them to repair to the new centre, and dilating on the advantages of academic studies and of learning. The rise of these two universities, however, neither of which attained to much distinction, represents little more than the incorporation of certain already existing institutions into a homogeneous whole, the power of conferring degrees being superadded. But the university of Tübingen, founded by charter of Sixtus IV. (9th November 1476), represents an entirely new creation. Its real founder was Mathilda, the mother of Count Eberhard of Würtemberg, who appropriated five livings and eight prebends to the endowment. Of the chairs, 3 were for theology, 3 for the canon and 2 for the civil law, 2 for medicine, and 4 for arts. The general financial condition of this university in the year 1541-42, and the sources from whence its revenues were derived, have been illustrated by Hoffmann in a short paper which shows the fluctuating character of the resources of a university in those days,—liable to be affected, as they were, both by the seasons and the markets.

Nearly contemporaneous with these foundations were those of Upsala (1477) and Copenhagen (1479), which, although lying without the political boundaries of Germany, reflected her influence. The charter for Copenhagen was given by Sixtus IV. as early as 1475. The students