Page:Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition, v. 23.djvu/442

Rh the Mexican empire. But the result was the enslavement of Tlaxcala itself, the general decay of the country, and the dispersion of most of the inhabitants by Cortes. Although now reduced to a population of a little over 5000, or, including the commune, to 36,000, and with no monuments beyond a fine church, an old episcopal palace, and a town-hall, the city at the time of the conquest was a very large place, containing nearly as many inhabitants as the whole of the modern state (130,000). When occupied by the Spaniards, its size and splendour excited the admiration of Cortes, who describes it in somewhat exaggerated language as "much larger and much stronger than Granada, with as fine buildings and much more people than Granada had at the time it was captured, also much better supplied with the things of the earth" (Cartas, 67). It was disposed in four distinct quarters separated by high stone walls, each with a palace for the ruling chief, besides temples, and stone buildings for the nobles. But most of the other houses were low mud or adobe structures. In the daily market, which was said to be frequented by 30,000 people, were exposed for sale the products of the surrounding country, maize, maguey (extracted from the aloe), and chilli pepper; to these are now added wheat, barley, pease, lentils, and a great variety of fruits.

A prominent feature of the landscape is the Sierra de Malintzi, or Malinche, that is, "Lord of Marina," a name given to Cortes after his alliance with the "heroine of the conquest." The Sierra (originally Matlacuezatl), which rises grandly (more than 16,000 feet) above the plateau, takes a prominent place in Tlaxcaltecan mythology, owing to the peculiar shape of its summit, representing in rough outline the body of a native woman lying at full length in its grave and partly wrapped in its cerements. There are some woollen manufactures, centred chiefly in the capital, and also a few silver, copper, lead, and coal mines in the San Ambrosio and San Mateo ranges; but the state is essentially agricultural, yielding large annual crops of maize and wheat, the total produce being valued at over 1,000,000.

 TLEMCEN, or, a town of Algeria, chef-lieu of an arrondissement in the department of Oran, lies 86 miles S.W. of Oran, 2625 feet above the sea, on a terrace on the northern slope of a range of rocky hills (3430 feet). Its white minarets, towers, and battlements rise picturesquely above the surrounding verdure, which is nourished by numerous springs, and even in ancient days gave rise to the Roman name Pomaria. The various quarters are grouped around the principal mosque, the Jewish to the south west, the Moorish to the south-east, that of the merchants to the north-east, while the new town with the civic build ings lies to the north-west. Of the sixty-four mosques which existed at the period of the French conquest, several have disappeared. The great mosque has a minaret adorned with marble columns, and cased with mosaic of the most varied designs; a fountain of alabaster stands in the alabaster-paved inner court; and seventy-two columns support the pointed arches of the interior. The mosque of Abul Hasan, now used as a French and Arab school, has two series of arches, which rest on alabaster pillars, and the courts are ornamented by sculptures of great beauty and richness; the delicately carved cedar ceiling bears traces of polychromatic painting. The mosque of El-Halawi is specially interesting for the sculptured capitals of its magnificent alabaster columns. Tlemcen, besides numerous other mosques, possesses a fine modern Roman Catholic church in the Byzantine style and five syna gogues. The military authorities occupy the Mehuar or citadel, built in 1145, which separates the Jewish and Moorish quarters, and was formerly the palace of the rulers of Tlemcen. Only the mosque and the battlemented wall, flanked by two towers, remain of its former magnificence. Among the antiquities preserved in the museum is the epitaph of Boabdil, the last king of Granada, who died at Tlemcen in 1494. The vast basin under the old walls, now used as a reservoir (720 feet in length, 490 in width, and 10 in depth), was apparently made for naval exhibitions by the sovereigns of Tlemcen. The barracks of the Spahis occupy all that remains of Kissaria, a settlement of European merchants from Pisa, Genoa, Catalonia, and Provence. Leather, saddles, Turkish slippers, arms, and woollen goods are manufactured in Tlemcen; the production of oil and flour and marketgardening occupy Europeans and natives; good tobacco is also grown. There is an active trade in cattle, wool, grain, and fruit. A railway (37 miles) is being built (1887) to connect Tlemcen with Rahgun, its port. In 1886 the population (natives, Europeans, and Jews) was 19,745 (26,395 in the commune).

The town was originally at Agadir (Pomaria), to the east of the present site, where Roman inscriptions have been found. At the time of the Arab invasion the district was held by the Beni Ifren tribe of Zenata Berbers, who ultimately founded here the sove reignty of the Bern Ya la (1002-1080). In 1080 the Almoravid king, after besieging and sacking the place, built a new town on the site of his camp. His successors reigned sixty-five years, when, after holding Agadir four years against the enemy, they were overcome by the Almohades, who massacred the inhabitants, rebuilt, enlarged, and repeopled the ruined town, and surround eil Tlemcen and Agadir with a common wall. Tlemcen now flourished greatly under the Abd al-Wad, also a Zenata dynasty, who ruled first for the Almohades and after 1242 as nominal vassals of the Hafsites of Tunis. In 1337. their power was temporarily extin guished by the Merinids, who built the town of Mansura, west of Tlemcen. They left some fine monuments of the period of their ascendency, which lasted twenty-two years. Once more, under the Abd al-Wad, from 1359 to 1553, Tlemcen enjoyed prosperity, when it had a population of 125,000, an extensive trade, a brilliant court, a powerful army, and its finest buildings were reared. The Spanish occupation of Oran struck a fatal blow at the European commerce of the town, which gradually lost all its territory to the Turks after they had seized Algiers. When the French entered Algeria the sultans of Morocco were worsted by the Kuluglis in their attempt to hold the town. In 1834, and again in 1837, Abd el-Kader sought to re-establish the ancient empire of Tlernceu, but the French definitely took possession in January 1842.

 TOAD.This animal belongs to the Anurous division of the Amphibia, and toads and frogs are the only representatives of the Anura or Batrachia indigenous to Britain. To an ordinary observer the toad is proved to be an amphibian by its moist soft skin, an anuran or tailless amphibian by the want of a separate tail. The toad differs from the frog in the following points: It has no teeth on either of its jaws or on the roof of its mouth, while the frog has a series of fine teeth on the upper jaw and also teeth on the palate; the tongue in both animals is attached in front and free behind, but that of the frog is forked at its free extremity, that of the toad is not; the skin of the toad is rough with large protuberant warts, while that of the frog is smooth; the body of the toad is more globular and puffy than that of the frog; the hind legs in the toad are shorter, and the posterior digits not so completely webbed, the animal being more terrestrial in its habits than the frog. In the toad, as in the frog, there are four digits anteriorly, five posteriorly. The warts of the toad's skin contain large cutaneous glands, which secrete a thick yellowish fluid with acrid properties, capable of irritating and producing slight inflammation on the human skin. The use of this secretion is probably to protect the toad from being devoured by carnivorous animals. Like other Amphibia, it has a large membranous bladder communicating with the terminal part of the intestine the allantoic bladder, in which fluid accumulates, probably from the kidneys, though the ureters do not open directly into the bladder. The toad, when handled or alarmed in any way, ejects the contents of its bladder. Owing to these peculiarities and its appearance, the animal is commonly regarded with loathing, and credited with far more poisonous properties than it possesses. In its breeding habits the toad resembles the frog: its eggs are fertilized externally at the