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 796 SWITZEKLAND with France. In 1871 many French refugees, especially Bourbaki's army, were most hospitably received and sheltered. The growth of the Old Catholics after the Vatican council (1870) caused many disturbances in western Switzerland, especially in the Bernese Jura. The attack was led by Bishop Lachat of Basel, whose see was suppressed by several cantons in 1873. The Old Catholics have been recognized by nine cantons and the see of Basel set up again, though Bern does not recognize it. The appointment by the pope of the abbe Mermillod as " apostolic vicar " of Geneva, which was separated from the diocese of Freiburg, led to Monseigneur Mermillod's banishment from Switzerland (1872), but in 1883 he was raised to the vacant see of Freiburg and allowed by the federal authorities to return, though Geneva still refuses to recognize him. Perhaps the latest event of importance to Switzerland was the opening of the St Gotthard tunnel, which was begun in 1871 and ended in 1880; by it the Forest cantons seem likely to regain the importance which was theirs in the early days of the Confederation. From 1848 onwards the cantons continually revised their constitutions, always in a democratic sense, though after the Sonderbund War Schwyz and Zug abolished their " landsgemeinde." The chief point was the introduction of the referendum, by which laws made by the cantonal legislature may (facultative referendum) or must (obligatory referendum} be submitted to the people for their approval, and this has obtained such general acceptance that Frei- burg alone does not possess the referendum in either of its two forms, Tessin having accepted it in its optional form in 1883. It was therefore only natural that attempts should be made to revise the federal constitution of 1848 in a democratic and centralizing sense, for it had been pro- vided that the federal assembly, on its own initiative or on the written request of 50,000 Swiss electors, could submit the question of revision to a popular vote. In 1866 the restriction of certain rights (mentioned above) to Christians only was swept away ; but the attempt at final revision in 1872 was defeated by a small majority, owing to the efforts of the anti-centralizing party. Finally, however, another draft was better liked, and on April 19, 1874, the "Revised new constitution was accepted by the people 14^ cantons a g a i ns t 71 (those of 1848 without Tessin, but with Frei- kurg and Lucerne) and 340,199 votes as against 198,013. This constitution is that now in force, and is simply an improved edition of that of 1848. The federal tribunal (now of nine members only} was fixed (by federal law) at Lausanne, and its jurisdiction enlarged, especially in con- stitutional disputes between cantons and the federal autho- rities, though jurisdiction in administrative matters (e.g., educational, religious, election, commercial) is given to the federal council, a division of functions which is very anomalous, and does not work well. A system of free elementary education tvas set up, and many regulations made on ecclesiastical matters. A man settling in another canton was, after a residence of three months only, given all cantonal and communal rights, save a share in the common property (an arrangement which as far as possible kept up the old principle that the " commune " is the true unit out of which cantons and the Confederation are built), and the membership of the " commune " carries with it cantonal and federal rights. The referendum was intro- duced in its "facultative" form; i.e., all federal laws must be submitted to popular vote on the demand of 30,000 Swiss electors or of eight cantons. If the revision of the federal constitution is demanded by one of the two houses of the federal assembly or by 50,000 Swiss citizens, the question of revision must be submitted to a popular vote, as also the draft of the revised constitution, these provisions, contained already in the constitution of 1848, consti- of 1874 [HISTORY. forming a species of " obligatory referendum." It was sup- posed that this plan would lead to radical and sweeping changes ; but as a matter of fact there have been (1874-86) about one hundred and seven federal laws and resolutions passed by the assembly, of which nineteen were by the referendum submitted to popular vote, thirteen being re- jected, while six only were accepted, the rest becoming law as no referendum was demanded. There has been a very steady opposition to all schemes aiming at increased centralization. By the constitutions of 1848 and 1874 Switzerland has ceased to be a mere union of independent states joined by a treaty, and has become a single state with a well-organized central Government, to which have been given certain of the rights of the independent cantons, but increased centralization would destroy the whole character of the Confederation, in which the can- tons are not administrative divisions but living political communities. Swiss history teaches us, all the way through, that Swiss liberty has been won by a close union of many small states, and we cannot doubt that it will be best preserved by the same means, and not by obliterating all local peculiarities, nowhere so striking and nowhere so historically important as in Switzerland. Chronological Table of Chief Events. 1291. First League of the Three Lauds. 1315. Morgarten. 1353. The Eight Orte complete. 1386. Sempach. 1388. Nafels. 1394. Hapsburgs give up rights 1444. St Jakob an der Birs. 1474. Everlasting Compact. 1476. Granson and Morat. 1481. Compact of Stanz. 1499. Practical Freedom from the Empire. 1513. The Thirteen complete. 1516. Alliance with France. 1531. Kappel. 1586. Golden League. 1648. Formal Freedom from the Empire. 1798. The Helvetic Republic. 1803. Act of Mediation 19 Cantons. 1815. Federal Pact 22 Cantons. 1847. Sonderbund War. 1848. Federal Constitution. 1874. Revised Constitution. General Authorities. For the early history, the works of Iluber, Rilliet, and Von Wyss (see TELL) may be consulted ; for general political history those of Daguet, Dandliker (large and small versions), Henne am Rhyn, Occhsli, Striekler, Vulliemin ; and, for constitutional history, those of Blumer, Bluntschli, Dubs, Meyer, and Orelli. Of those named, the works of Rilliet, 'Dandliker (the small version), Striekler, Dubs, and Orelli are best suited for foreign readers. Books on local history and on special periods abound, and many very valuable essays are hidden in the publications of the numerous cantonal historical societies. Of modern English works relating to Switzerland the most note- worthy are G. Grote, Seven Letters concerning the Politics of Switzerland [the Sonderbund War of 1847] (originally published 18-17, reprinted 1876), and E. A. Freeman, " Review of Kirk's 'Charles the Bold,'" in Historical Essays, first series, 1872, pp. 335-370, and Historical Geography of Europe, 1881. The great Historisch-Geographischer Atlas der Schtceiz, by Vogeh'n, Meyer von Knonau, and Von Wyss (Zurich, 1870), is almost indispensable to any serious student of Swiss history. Gerster's small maps are appended to Oechsli's history, and also put>- lished separately. (W. A. B. C.) PART III. LITERATURE. It can hardly be said of Switzerland that she possesses a truly national literature. She has a literature in French and a literature in German, but these literatures are not the expression of a common intellectual life, for the German and French cantons have always been to some extent dominated by different ideas and sympathies. Political union has been only in part associated with the deeper union which relates to purely ideal interests. Even the difference between the French and the German literatures of Switzerland does not give a complete con- ception of the diversity of thought and sentiment which exists in the country. Switzerland has also produced Italian writers and writers who use the Romansch dialect of the Grisons. The Romansch and Italian branches of her literature are not, however, sufficiently important to deserve more than passing notice. During the struggles against the Hapsburgs the mem- bers of the Confederation were too seriously occupied in defending their political rights and in adding to their territory to be very eager for the satisfaction of intellectual needs. They produced some vigorous war songs, but in other respects they were content with such literature as