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Rh REFORMATION 337 being subdivided into classes, while the mode of government was nearly identical with that known as Presbyterian. t, In England the reformation of doctrine made but little g in progress during the reign of Henry VIII., for, although sad. j^ the Ten Articles (1536) the royal assent was given to the adoption of the doctrine of justification by faith and to the recognition of the Bible and the three ancient creeds as the standard of belief, a marked reaction in favour of Catholic doctrine took place in the enactment of the Six Articles in 1539. For a brief period heresy became a statutable offence and death was inflicted under the new provisions. The anomalous position of the English Church became a scandal to Europe ; for, while some men were burnt for denying the doctrine of transubstantiation or for refusing to admit the royal supremacy, others, as Barnes and Gerard, suffered at the stake for their profes- sion of Lutheran opinions, and even Cromwell must be regarded as in some measure a victim of his attachment to German Protestantism. During the reign of Edward VI. Somerset in conjunction with Cranmer pressed on the work of the Reformation apace. Chantries and hospitals were everywhere suppressed and their endowments confis- cated. The bishops were compelled to acknowledge their direct subordination to the crown by being required to take out licences for the exercise of their jurisdiction. In 1549 the first Book of Common Prayer was published, and the Act of Uniformity prescribed its use, while that of all other forms of devotion was forbidden under heavy penalties. The canon law was revised by a body of com- missioners specially appointed for the purpose, and the new code was completed for future use, although it never received the young king's signature. By these and other similar reforms, carried out in a great measure under Cranmer 's direction, it was sought to make the Reforma- tion in England a complete rejoinder to the proceedings of the council assembled at Trent.
 * tnd. In Scotland the Reformation assumed a different char-

acter from that of the movement in England. It was inspired directly and solely by Germany, and may be regarded as commencing from the martyrdom of Patrick Hamilton in the year 1528, there being no evidence of any prior spontaneous efforts in the direction of doctrinal reform on the part of the people. Hamilton's designs were looked upon with the greatest disfavour by the clergy at large; and, as James V. was especially anxious to secure the support of that body in his conflict with his insub- ordinate nobility, he was altogether opposed to the adop- tion of the Lutheran tenets. He even aspired to succeed to the title, which Henry had forfeited, of " Defender of the Faith," and was encouraged to hope that he might succeed to the English crown. After his death (1542), however, under the regency of the earl of Arran, the Reformed doctrines began to be regarded with greater favour at court, while the merciless policy of Cardinal Beaton and the cruel fate of Wishart gave rise to an out- burst of popular indignation against the bishops to which Beaton himself fell a victim (1546). The country was now divided into two parties, the bishops, the clergy at large, and the powerful influence of France (as represented by the Guises) being on the side of Catholicism, while many of the chief nobles and the laity at large were inclined to favour Protestantism. The English influence, which, wisely exerted, might have operated powerfully on the same side, was, however, sacrificed by the injudicious policy of Somerset, who by his endeavour to enforce the marriage of Mary Stuart with the youthful Edward roused the national spirit. The sense of humiliation and resent- ment which followed upon the battle of Pinkie (1547), where the English were greeted by the Scottish soldiery with the cry of "heretics," produced a reaction in favour of Catholicism which was not arrested until the return of John Knox in 1555 from the Continent (see KNOX). In Ireland the circumstances which favoured the intro- Ireland, duction of Protestantism in England were altogether wanting. The Roman ritual was in harmony with the genius of the people, whereas the aversion naturally inspired by a creed imposed at the dictation of the conqueror was in itself a formidable obstacle. The harsh and essentially un-Christian policy pursued by the constituted ecclesiastical authorities presented further difficulties. The Bible was not translated into the vernacular, and that idiom was equally ignored in the church services, where the choice lay between the Latin, hallowed in the minds of the people by immemorial usage, and the language of the oppressor. Notwithstanding, if the native population failed to attend the English Church services they were fined. Other abuses similar to those which had contributed so power- fully to render Germany Protestant, non-residence on the part of the clergy, the bestowal of benefices on needy aliens, often altogether wanting in religious earnestness, and sometimes indifferent to the observance of ordinary morality, still further intensified the feeling of alienation. Protestantism became odious in the eyes of the Irish people ; and, when, after long years of oppression and neglect, it was sought to inaugurate a juster policy and to render the established church in some degree really national, the obstacles thus created could not be overcome. Authorities. The sources already named under POPEDOM, BEZA, CALVIN, ERASMUS, Huss, JESUITS, KNOX, LUTHKR may be con- sulted. The Lchrbuch dcr KircJiengcschichte of Gieseler (vol. iii. 2 pts. ) gives a condensed and impartial summary of the main features of the movement throughout Europe, together with a valuable compendium of authorities. A translation has appeared in Clark's Foreign Theological Library, and has been republished in a revised form by Prof. Henry B. Smith (New York, 1868), but in its latter form the valuable citations contained in the German work from the original authorities are not given in full. Other standard works are Baur, Gcsch. d. christlichcn Kirchc (1863) ; Guericke, Handbuch der Kirchengesch. , vol. ii. (Leipsic, 1866), which treats the subject from the Lutheran standpoint ; Hagenbach, Hist, of Ref. in Ger- many and Switzerland (Clark's For. Theol. Lib., 2 vols., 1879), written in sympathy with the Zwinglian movement ; Dollinger, Die Reformation, 3 vols. (1851), treating solely of the Lutheran movement; Ranke, Deutsche Gcsch. im Zcitalter d. Rcf., 5 vols.; Maurenbrecher, Gcsch. d, kath. Ref., vol. i. (1517-34), 1880. The Annales Ecclcsiastici of Raynaldus. the continuator of Baronius, contains original documents. See also Hausser's Gesch. d. Zeitaltcrs der Ref. (1547-1648), 2d ed., by Oncken, 1879, in which the poli- tical relations of the movement are succinctly brought out (Eng. trans, by Mrs Sturge, 1873) ; Monumenta Rcformationis Lutlicranw, a selection from documents at the Vatican by Cardinal Balan (1883- 84) ; and Keller's Die Reformation und die altercn Rcformparteien (Leipsic, 1885). For the confessions successively adopted by the different Evangelical and Reformed churches consult Schaffs His- tory of the Creeds (1878), chaps, v., vi., and vii. The series known as Leben und ausgewahlte, Schriften der Vater und Bcgriinder der Luthcrischcn Kirchen, ed. Nitzsch, 8 vols. (1861-<75), gives full bio- graphies of the most eminent Evangelical teachers. The corre- sponding work for the Reformed Church is the Leben und ausgnv. Schriften d. Vater u. JBegr. d. ref. Kirchen, ed. Hagenbach, 10 vols. (1857-62). .Other biographies of special interest are Geiger, Joliann Reuchlin, sein Leben u. seine Werke (Leipsic, 1871), and that of Ulrich von Hutten, by Strauss (trans, by Mrs Sturge, 1874). Hutten's Works (ed. E. Booking, 7 vols., Leipsic, 1871) and Das Chronikon des Konrad Pcllican (ed. Riggenbach, Basel, 1877) may also be consulted. For the history of the subject in England, see Foxe's Acts and Monuments, ed. Cattley, 8 vols. (1841) ; Jer. Collier's Ecclesiastical History of Great Britain,' 'ed. Barham, 9 vols. (1840-41) ; Burnet's History of the Reformation in England, ed. Pocock, 7 vols. (1865) ; and the criticisms contained in vol. iii. of S. R. Maitland's Tracts (1842), and also his Essays on Subjects con- nected with the, Reformation in England. The Records of the Reforma- tion, by Pocock, 2 vols. (1870), contains important original docu- ments ; to this work may be added Strype's Annals, 6 vols. (1822), and Memorials, 7 vols. (1824) ; the works of the Reformers published by the Parker Society (Cambridge, 1841-54), and the Zurich Letters, 3 vols. (same society) ; J. H. Blunt's Reformation of the Church of England (1514-47), 2 vols., 1869-80; and Dixon's History of the Church of England from the Abolition of tlic Roman Jurisdiction (1529-48), 2 vols., 1877-80. (J. B. M.) XX. 43