Page:Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition, v. 20.djvu/348

Rh 330 REFORMATION of the New Testament, and in 1526 we bear of its intro- duction into Oxford by Thomas Garret, and of the volume being burnt at Paul's Cross. On 27th November 1527 Bilney and Arthur were examined at the Chapter House at Westminster before Wolsey and other ecclesiastics, as to whether they had preached or taught to the people the opinions of Luther or any others condemned by the church. Owing to the proximity of Cambridge to the seaports and commercial towns of the eastern counties, such as Yarmouth, Harwich, and Norwich, the university would appear to have become familiarized with the Lutheran doctrines much sooner than Oxford. From 3d July to 20th September 1527 Wolsey was in France, intent on bringing about the marriage of Princess Mary with the duke of Orleans, and on gaining the support of Francis in the matter of the royal divorce. Henry Henry himself had at this time fully resolved to carry Vlll.'s the latter project into effect, and the doubts raised with iivorce. res j )ec t ^ o the validity of his marriage and the legitimacy of Mary cannot be regarded as anything more than official formalities, designed to give a veil of decency to his real purpose. While in France Wolsey learned from Flanders that the emperor had become apprised of Henry's real intentions, and he himself now proceeded (to quote his own words) to employ "all possible ways and practices for the obtaining of the pope's consent." Unfortunately for the success of his efforts, Henry at this juncture con- ceived the design of sending another agent to Rome, to act altogether independently of Wolsey, and charged to procure, not only the appointment of a commission em- powered to dissolve the marriage with Catherine, but also a dispensation removing all obstacles to the king's second marriage with Anne Boleyn. Clement was still a prisoner in the castle of St Angelo, but on the evening of the 9th December 1527, disguised in a blouse and carrying a basket and an empty sack on his back, he effected his escape, and with the assistance of a guide arrived the next morning at Orvieto. From that day his resolve was probably definitively taken, and, notwithstanding his previous promises and his subsequent apparent conces- sions, he would seem to have been firmly resolved not to grant his consent to a measure deeply humiliating to him- self and certain to expose him to the full brunt of the emperor's resentment. But at Orvieto Henry's delegate, Knight, although untrained and ill qualified for the task of a diplomatist, obtained both a commission and a dispensa- tion, which, however, on his reaching England, were both found to be worthless, owing to designed non-observance of the necessary technicalities. In the following year Foxe and Gardiner were despatched on a like errand. The latter was far better suited for the work than Knight; and he did not scruple to threaten the trembling pontiff with the complete withdrawal of Henry's support, and to predict as the inevitable consequence the collapse of the already tottering apostolic see, a result which, he de- clared, " would be attended by the applause and satisfac- tion of the whole world." By such menaces Clement was eventually induced again to grant a commission and a dispensation. A decretal bull, formally annulling Henry's first marriage, was handed to Campeggio, which he was instructed to show to the king and then to destroy. But in the meantime the celebrated brief executed by Julius II., in which the dispensation for Henry's first marriage was re-enacted in more precise and unqualified terms, was discovered in the Spanish archives. It was sought to show that the brief was a forgery, but to this view of the matter Clement altogether refused to assent. At length, however, in May 1529 the legate proceeded to open his court at Westminster. The courageous conduct of Catherine put honourable men to shame; and no slight impression was produced by Bishop Fisher's heroic declaration of his willingness to stake his life that her marriage with the king was perfectly valid. Campeggio, under various pretexts, still hesitated and delayed. In July the news of the peace of Cambray arrived, and it was known that the influence of the emperor would hence- forth be paramount in Italy, while it was believed that the projected marriage between the French monarch and the sister of the emperor augured a durable peace between the empire and France. Then the legate adjourned the court and the pontiff revoked the cause to Rome. All around Wolsey saw the plans which he had laid with so much toil and skill breaking up, and on him the royal displeasure vented itself. He died 30th November 1530, a victim to the wanton caprice of one whom he had served only too faithfully, and with him the ablest supporter of papal influence and the most formidable opponent of Reformation principles in England disappeared. Henry would not condescend* to appear before a Roman court, and as a last expedient it was proposed that the question of the legality of his first marriage should be submitted to the learned bodies, the universities and emi- nent canonists of Europe. This scheme had already been recommended by the episcopal bench, but to Cranmer's ingenuity is attributed the further suggestion that the opinion thus obtained should be carried into effect by a court convened in England. Commissioners, among whom Richard Croke appears as the most conspicuous and in- defatigable, were accordingly despatched on the proposed errand. The means to which they had recourse in order to obtain opinions such as their royal employer desired are plainly described by a contemporary writer, who says that " there was inestimable sums of money given to the famous clerks to choke them, and in especial to such as had the governance and custody of their universities' seals." l The evidence more recently brought to light enables us to accept this statement as substantially correct. 2 The unpopularity of the divorce among the nation at large was especially shown at the two universities, where the junior members made demonstrations of the greatest dis- satisfaction, while their seniors were mostly bribed or in- timidated into acquiescence by the royal agents ; nor could the authorities at either Oxford or Cambridge disguise the fact that they found themselves at variance with the feeling of the country at large. It is at this juncture that Cranmer assumes a foremost Cran place as a leader of the English Reformation. He had written in defence of the divorce, and had taken a part in embassies sent by Henry to treat on the question with the emperor and the pope ; and Clement had shown his sense of the value of his influence by appointing him to the lucrative post of grand penkentiary for England, in the hope of winning him over to the papal interests. Cranmer's whole policy, however, had been directly opposed to that of Wolsey. He had used his best efforts to con- firm the commercial relations with the Netherlands, and had superintended the negotiation of a commercial treaty between that country and England. He had resided for some months in Germany, and while there had married Margaret, the daughter of Andrew Osiander, a distin- guished preacher and- leader of the Lutheran party at Nuremberg. From Germany he was now summoned back to England to become the successor of Warham, the pri- mate, who had died in August 1532. As there had as yet been no formal rupture with the see of Rome, it became necessary for him to apply to Clement for the customary bull of consecration, and also for his pallium as metro- 1 Cavendish, Life of Wolsey, ed. Singer, p. 206. 2 See Croke's and other letters in Records of the Reformation, ed. Pocock, Nos. xcix.-cxxvi., cxxviii.-cxlvi., clvii.-cciii.