Page:Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition, v. 2.djvu/251

Rh A Q U A K A 233 virtues are faith, hope, and charity; the natural, justice, prudence, and the like. The theological virtues are founded on faith, in opposition to the natural, which are founded c/u reason ; and as faith with Aquinas is always belief in a proposition, not trust in a personal Saviour, conformably with his idea that revelation is a new knowledge rather than a new life, the relation of unbelief to virtue is very strictly and narrowly laid down and enforced. The third part of the Summa is also divided into two parts, but by accident rather than by design. Aquinas died ere he had finished his great work, and what has been added to complete the scheme is appended as a Supplementum Tertice Partis. In this third part Aquinas discusses the person, office, and work of Christ, and had begun to discuss the sacraments, when death put an end to his labours. The best edition of the works of Aquinas is the Venice one of 1787, in twenty-eight 4to vols. It contains the useful dissertations of Bernhard de Rubeis. The Abbe Migne has published a very useful edition of the Summa Theologies, in four 8vo vols., as an appendix to his Patro oyicc Cursus Compldus. See A da Sanct. , vii. Martii ; Touron, La Tie de St Thomas d Aquin avec un cxpos de sa doctrine et de ses outrages, Paris, 1737 ; Dr Karl Werner, Dcr Heiligc, Thomas von Aquino, 1858; and Dr R. B. Vaughan, SL Thomas of Aquin, his Life and Labours. London, 1872. Forthe philosophy of Aquinas, see Albert Stockl, Gcschichtc dcr Philosophic f!--s Mittclalters, ii. ; Haureau, De la Philosophic Scolastique, tome ii. ; and Ueberweg s History of Philosophy, vol. i. (T. M. L.) AQUITAXIA. This was, in the time of Julius Caesar, the name given to that part of Gallia which lay between the Garumna and the Pyrenees, and was inhabited by a race distinct from the Celtse. According to Bial and Bello- guet, Aquitani is probably a form of Auscetaui, a Hispanic lengthening of Ausces (Ausks, Wasks, Basques), and Aquitania would thus be radically identical with Gascony (Wasconia), a word of much later introduction into geo graphical nomenclature. Though the greater proportion of the Aquitanian tribes made submission to Cresar, it was not till 28 B.C. that the region Mas fairly brought under the Roman yoke by M. Valerius Messala. In keeping with the imperial policy of denationalisation, the term Aquitania was extended, in the division of Gallia under Augustus, to the whole stretch of country south and east of the con tinuous course of the Loire and the Allier, and thus ceased to be of ethnographical import. In the 3d century after Christ this extended Aquitania was divided into three parts. Aquitania Prima consisted of the eastern portion of the district between the Loire and the Garonne ; Aqui tania Secunda, of the western part of the same district ; and Aquitania Tertia or Novempopulania, of the region between the Pyrenees and the Garonne, or the original Aquitania. Like the rest of Gau], Aquitania absorbed a large measure of Roman civilisation which continued to distinguish the district down to a late period. In the 5th century the Visigoths established themselves in Aquitania Secunda, and in some cantons of Xarbonensis Prima and Novempopulania. As their power also included Spain, it was usual to speak of their Gallic possessions as Spain likewise. The Merovingian kings extended their authority nominally to the Pyrenees ; but as Guizot has remarked (Essais, lS T o. ii.) &quot;the conquest of Aquitania by Clovis left it almost as alien to the people and king of the Franks as it had formerly been For a time indeed, about G30, the Aquitanians rallied round Haribert (Charibert), the brother of Dagobert, in hope of national independence, even under a Frankish ruler ; but the usual story that their ducal family was descended from him rests on a forgery (t. Henri Martin, UTtf*. de France, voL ii. p. 137). About the end of the 7th century, an adventurer named Eudes or Eudon had made himself master of the region. Attacked by the Siiracens, he inflicted on them a crushing defeat but, on their reappearance, was obliged to call in the aid of Charles Martel, who, as the price of his assistance, claimed the homage of his ally. He was succeeded by his son Hunald, who, after carrying on a war against the aggressions of Pepin the Short, retired to a convent, and left the conflict and the kingdom to Guaifer (Waifer). For nine years he strenuously maintained the hopeless strife, till his assas sination in 7GS. With him perished for a time the national independence, but not the national individuality, of the Aquitanians. The kingdom of Aquitania was bestowed by Charlemagne on the infant Louis in 781; and from him it was transmitted to his son Pepin, on whose death the Aquitanians loyally chose Pepin the younger, but were opposed by Louis, who gave the crown to Charles the Bald. Hence ensued a long period of confusion and conflict, which resulted in the comparative success of Charles, who granted the Aquitanians a nominal separation from Neus- tria, and gave them his son Charles, eight years old, to be their nominal king (855) nominal, not only because he was a child, but because his kingdom was in a state of anarchy through domestic faction and foreign invasion. On his death (8GG), Louis the Stammerer succeeded to the titular sovereignty. About 886 Guilhem (William) the Pious, count of Auvergne, the founder of the abbey of Cluny, obtained the title of Duke of Aquitania, and transmitted it (918) to Guilhem II. He was followed in succession by Raimond Pous, count of Toulouse (d. 950), Guilhem Tete d Etoupes, count of Poitiers (d. 963), Guilhem Fier-a-Bras, whose sister was married by Hugh Capet (970), and Guilhem the Great (977-1030), who had hard work to maintain his ground, but at last changed his title into an effective lordship. His duchy almost reached the limits of the I. and II. Aquitania of the Romans, but did not extend south of the Garonne, that district having been ever since the 6th century in the possession of the Gascons. Guilhem refused the empire offered him by the Italians, and died at Maillezais. Meanwhile civilisation and refinement were gradually increasing. The names of Guilhem VI. (d. 1038), Guilhem VII., who joined Gascony and Bordeaux to his duchy, and married his daughter to Henry the Black, and Guilhem VIII. bring us down to Guilhem IX., who suc ceeded in 108G, and made himself famous as crusader and troubadour. Guilhem X. (d. 1137) married his daughter to Louis VII. of France, and Aquitania went as her dowry. On her divorce from Louis and marriage with Henry II. of England (1152), her possession passed to her new husband, and from that time continued to follow the fortunes of the English territories in France. The name Guienne, the modern corruption of Aquitania, seems to have come into use about the 10th century. An interesting literary relic of the struggle between the Franks and the Gallo-Roman inhabitants of Aquitania exists under the title of Walther d Aquitaine (see Fauriel s Pocsie Proven&amp;lt;;ale), but the his torical value of this work has been questioned. ARABESQUE, a term to which a meaning is now com monly given that is historically incorrect. &quot;We apply it to the grotesque decoration derived from Roman remains of the early time of the empire, not to any style derived from Arabian or Moorish work ; the term is therefore a mis nomer. Arabesque and Moresque are really distinct; the latter is from the Arabian style of ornament, developed by the Byzantine Greeks for their new masters, after the conquests of the followers of Mahomet ; and the former is a term pretty well restricted to varieties of cinqueceuto decoration, which have nothing in common with any Arabian examples in their details, but are a development derived from Greek and Roman grotesque designs, such as we find them in the remains of ancient palaces at Rome, and in ancient houses at Pompeii. These were reproduced by Raphael and his pupils in the decoration of some of II. to