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Rh 78 P I A P I A guilds were all masters who had terminated their apprenticeships by producing complete instruments as &quot;master-pieces,&quot; made according to the rules and to the satisfaction of the wardens or deacons of the guilds. A trial of this kind lasted long in many crafts for instance, in the ease of Scottish cabinetmakers inden tures, an apprentice s freedom was only gained after the test produc tion of an &quot; essay piece of work, duly authenticated and admitted. Spinets and harpsichords were bound to bear the inscription of the maker s name, or to show his trade mark as a guarantee for honest workmanship. The master s sons and apprentices .were, in the master s workshops, probationers of the guild and protected by it. Even in the 17th century we hear little about journeymen, who, as the name implies, would be paid by the day. But the extension of musical instrument workshops about the beginning of the 18th century was one of the signs of the weakened power of the guilds particularly in Great Britain. In France it needed the Revolution to entirely abolish them. Throughout the 18th century journeywork and apprenticeship were general. Wages, compared with the cost of living, were meagre, and the day s work, not unfreqnently extended by overtime, was a long one. The result was a slow production. The English cabinet makers, however, owing to disputes which at last called for judicial interference, in the year 1788 brought out their book of prices which was the foundation of the present piece-work system. Piano forte makers in course of time adopted this new departure with the result of quicker work and higher wages, benefiting alike the master and man. The next industrial revolution was inaugurated some where about 1815, by the introduction of machinery to save manual labour, the division of which had already been instituted, and by the use of steam. Machinery has, as yet, been extended to its furthest limit iu America, where labour-saving is relied upon as a powerful ally against strikes, which are more frequently victorious in the New than in the Old World. Simultaneously a dislike has arisen to apprenticeships ; and even iu Germany, the traditional land of the apprentice, this mode of acquirement has weakened. Turning to the commercial importance of the pianoforte, we find that we have to face great dilticulties in order to obtain anything like trustworthy information. It is true official blue-books give yearly statements of exports and imports, but as they do not separate the pianoforte from other musical instruments an analysis is impossible. Personal inquiry again among pianoforte makers brings but scattered information, partly from the natural inclination to enhance business returns, and partly from an equally natural disinclination to impart that which, if spoken of at all, should be confidential. From this dil-mma we fall back upon gleanings of intelligence either of our own gathering or as afforded by the leading pianoforte trade organs in England and Germany the London Music Trades Rcvicio and the Leipsie Zeitschrift filr Instrumcntcnbau. The chief centres of the pianoforte trade are London, Paris, Berlin, Leipsie, Dresden, Stuttgart, Hamburg, Vienna, St Petersburg, Brussels, New York, Boston, and Baltimore. The greatest cen tralizations are found in London and Paris, very few pianofortes being made in the United Kingdom or France, excepting perhaps at Marseilles, out of those cities. But in Germany and the United States there are pianoforte makers in many towns besides those we have named. Pianofortes are made in Italy at Turin, Milan, Flo rence, Naples, and Palermo, and in Spain at Barcelona (principally), Madrid, and Saragossa. The large export trade belonged formerly to England and France, but it has been weakened of late years by the commercial activity of the Germans, who have besides copied success fully and with the advantage of much lower wages recent American models. German pianofortes are now much found in Great Britain, where free trade has favoured their introduction, and in the Australian colonies ; they have also outrivalled the French in Holland ; but we believe France still keeps the trade of southern Europe, as the United States mainly supply Canada. English exports of good makers will be found all over the world ; but some important markets have been lost through the inferior instruments consigned or sold because they were cheap, and were supposed to be good enough. The United States and Germany appear to employ the greatest number of workmen in the pianoforte handicraft, Germany pro ducing the largest numbers of instruments. In adopting, how ever, the statistics given, we must not forget to take into account that custom of advertising which leavens nearly every statement. There are said to be upwards of 8000 workmen employed in piano- making in America. The Messrs Steinway claim for America an annual production of about 25,000 pianofortes of all kinds. We hardiy feel disposed to allow Germany 73,000, with a less number of workmen, viz., 7834 ; but such is the statement put forward, it is said, by a semi-official source, the Deutsche Consulate -Zcitunc/. It must be borne in mind that machinery adds its power in definitely to the number of men employed, but this occurs more in America than in Germany. A recent strike in Paris repre sented the pianoforte trade society as consisting of 5000 members ; and we shall not be far out in crediting that city with a produc tion of 20,000 instruments yearly. The number made in London annually may be taken as reaching at least 35,000. ,, Gazette. Musieale (Paris, 1862), and Exposition Universelle de. Parif, Rapport du Jury (Paris, 1807); J. S. Broadwood, Some Notes made in 1838, with observa tions and elucidations by H. F. Broadwood, London, 1862; Kuetzine, l&amp;gt;as issen-

des Clarierbaues, Vienna, 1853; Anonymous, Notes sur les Travaux de MM. Erard, Paris, 1855; C. A. Andre&quot;, Der C/arierbau, Offenbach, 1855; H. Weicker von Gontershauscn, Der Fiiigel oder die BeschafJ ejiheit des Pianos in alien Formen (Frankfort, 1856), and Der C/arierbau in seiner Theorie. Technik, und Geschichte, (Frankfort, 1870); E. F. liinibault. The Pianoforte, London, 1860; J. Broadwood and Sons, International Exhibition, London, 1862; L. de Burburo, Reche rches sui tes Facteurs de Clavecins d Anvers, Brussels, 1863 ; A. W. Ainbros, Geschichte der Musik, vol. ii., Breslau, 1864 ; 0. Paul, Geschichte des Claviers (Leipsie. 1868), and Amt iche Beric/it iiber die, Wiener Ausstellun j tin Jahre 187.&quot; (Brunswick, 1874); G. F. Silvers, It Pianoforte Guida Pratica, Naples, 1868; Patents: Abridgments of Specifications relating to Musical Instruments, London, 1871 ; P. Kombouts and T. Van Lcrius, De Liggeren der Anticerpsche Sint Lucasgilde, vol. i., Antwerp, 1872, and vol. ii., The Hague; J. Bluethner and H. Gretschel, Lehrbuch des Pianofortebaiies, Leipsie, 1872; C. Engel, Musical Instruments in the South Kensington Museum (London, 1874), and &quot; Some Account of the Clavichord.&quot; in Musical Times (London, July, Aug., Sep., 1879); E. Vander Strneten, La Musique atix Pays Bas, vol. iii., Brussels, 187. r ,; Chh-kering & Sons, The. Pianoforte, Boston, 1874; C. Chouquet, Le, Musee du Conservatoire National de Musique (Paris, 1875), and Exposition Universelle. ft Internationale de Paris. Rapport du Jury (Paris, 1880); L. Puliti, Delia Origine di Pianoforte, Florence, 1876; C. Meyer & Son, On the Full Iron Plate Frame, for Pianos, Philadelphia, 1876; C. Ponsicchi, // Pianoforte, sua origine e sriluppo, Florence, 1876; Bos;inquet, Elementary Treatise on Musical Intervals, London, 1876 ; A. Kraus, Catalogue des Instruments de Musique du Musee Kraus, Florence, 1878; V. Mahillon, Annu- aires du Conservatoire Royale de Musique. de liruxelles (Brussels 1877 to 1883), and Catalogue desciiptifei analytique du Musee Instrumental du Conservatoire Royal de Musique de Bruxells (Ghent, 1880-81); L. F. Valdrighi, Musuiy/ana, Modena, 1879; E. Brinsmead, History of the Pianoforte, London, 1879 ; S. Blondel, flistoire Anecdotique du Piano, Paris, 1880; A. Keissmann, Illustrirte Geschichte der Deutschen Musik, Leipsie, 1880-81 ; A. J. Ellis, &quot; History of Musical Pitch,&quot; with appendices in Journal of the Society of Arts, London, 1880; A. J. Hipkins, various articles in Sir George Grove s Dictionary of Music tind Musicians, &quot; History of the Pianoforte,&quot; with appendix, in Journal of the Society of Arts (London, 1883). and &quot;The Pianoforte and its Precursors,&quot; in the English illustrated Magazine (London, 1884). (A. J. H.) PIARISTS, the popular name of the &quot; clerici regulares scholarum piarum&quot; the Pauline Congregation of the Mother of God, which was founded by Joseph Calasanza (Josephus a Matre Dei) at Rome in the beginning of the 17th century. Calasanza, a native of Calasanz in the province of Huesca in Aragon, was born on September 1 1 , 1556, studied at Lerida and Alcala, and after his ordina tion to the priesthood removed to Rome. Here he became zealously interested in the education of poor and orphan children, and with this end he organized, in 1607, a brother hood which ultimately, in 1617, became an independent Congregation, numbering at that time fifteen priests, under Calasanza as their head. To the three usual vows they added a fourth, that of devotion to the gratuitous instruc tion of youth. In 1622 the Congregation received a new constitution from Gregory XV., and had all the privileges of the mendicant orders conferred upon it, Calasanza being recognized as general. In this capacity he busied himself with the extension of the order, not only in Italy, but also in Germany, Poland, and other countries, until 1643, when the jealousy of the Jesuits led to conflicts which resulted in his removal from office ; owing to the same cause the Congregation was deprived of its privileges by Innocent X. in 1646. Calasanza, who died on August 22, 1648, was beatified in 1748, and canonized in 1767. The privileges of the Congregation were successively restored in 1660, 1669, and 1698. The Piarists, who are not a numerous body, are found chiefly in Italy, Spain, the West Indies, Germany, and especially in Austria-Hungary. PIATRA, a town of Roumania (Moldavia) at the head I of the department of Neamtsu, on the left bank of the j Bistritza, an affluent of the Sereth. It is about 45 miles