Page:Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition, v. 18.djvu/361

 P A S P A S 339 rebuilt by him ; he also built the church of St Prassede. The successor of Paschal I. was Eugenius II. PASCHAL II., pope from 1099 to 1118, was the successor of Urban II. Of his early history nothing is known except that his proper name was Rainieri, that he was of Tuscan origin, and that in early life he became a monk, probably of Cluny. He was raised to the cardin- alate by Gregory VII. about 1076, and was elected to the papal chair on August 13, 1099. In the long struggle with the imperial power about INVESTITURE (&amp;lt;?.? .) he zealously carried on the Hildebrandine policy, but hardly with Hildebrandine success. One of his first acts was to expel from Rome the antipope Clement III., otherwise known as Guibert of Ravenna, and to renew his prede cessor s sentence of excommunication against the emperor Henry IV., by the help of whose rebellious son it seemed at one time as if the claims of the church were to become wholly triumphant. But Prince Henry, who succeeded to the purple in 1106 (see HENRY V.), proved a still more active and persistent opponent of papal pretensions than ever his father had been. Paschal was courteously invited to Germany to assist in arranging definitely the affairs of the empire (1107), but, while the pope delayed his journey, the emperor proceeded actually to exercise all the rights of investiture to the fullest extent, and, having disposed of various wars in Bohemia, Hungary, and Poland, announced in 1110 the intention of proceeding to Rome to be crowned and to re-establish order in Italy. From Arezzo he sent ambassadors to Rome, and the pope after negotiation agreed to his coronation on the footing that the church should surrender all the possessions and royalties it had received of the empire and kingdom of Italy from the days of Charlemagne, while Henry on his side gave up the form of investiture. But on Henry s arrival in Rome (Feb. 1111), where feeling was strong against this pact, Paschal was slow to implement it, and the emperor ulti mately found it necessary to withdraw from the city, not, however, until he had compelled the pope and many of the cardinals to accompany him. After two months the pope yielded ; the coronation took place in the church of St Peter on April 13, and forthwith the emperor withdrew beyond the Alps after exacting a promise that no revenge should be taken for what had passed. The Lateran council, however, held in March 1112, repudiated as void, under penalty of excommunication, the concessions that had been extorted by the violence of Henry ; and a council held at Vienne some months afterwards actually excommunicated him, the pope himself ratifying the decree. On the death of the Countess Matilda of Tuscany, who had bequeathed her whole possessions to the church (1115), the emperor at once laid claim to them as imperial fiefs, and, descending into Italy, drove the pope first to Monte Casino and then to Benevento. Paschal returned to Rome, after the emperor s withdrawal, in the beginning of 1118, but died within a few days (January 21, 1118). His successor was Gelasius II. PASCHAL CONTROVERSY. See EASTER, vol. vii. p. 614. PASCO. See CERRO DE PASCO, vol. v. p. 347. PAS DE CALAIS, a maritime department of northern France, formed in 1790 of nearly the whole of Artois and the northern maritime portion of Picardy, including the Boulonnais, CalaisLs, Ardresis, and the districts of Langle and Bredenarde, lies between 50 2 and 51 N. lat. and 1 35 and 3 10 E. long., and is bounded N. by the Straits of Dover (&quot; Pas de Calais&quot;), E. by the department of Nord, S. by that of Somme, and W. by the English Channel. The distance from England is only 21 miles. Nord, which separates Pas de Calais from Belgium, is at one place only 3 miles wide, and from Arras (the chief town) to Paris in a direct line is about 100 miles. Except in the neighbourhood of Boulogne, with its cotes de fer or &quot;iron coasts,&quot; the seaboard of the department, which measures 65 miles, consists of dunes. From the mouth of the Aa (the limit towards Nord) it trends west-south west to Gris Nez, the point of France nearest to England ; in this section lie the port of Calais, Cape Blanc Nez, rising 440 feet above the sandy shores, and the port of Wissant (Wishant). Beyond Gris Nez the direction is due south ; in this section are the port of Ambleteuse, Boulogne at the mouth of the Liane, and the two bays formed by the estuaries of the Canche and the Authie (the limit towards Somme). The highest point in the department (700 feet) is in the west, between Boulogne and St Omer. From the uplands in which it is situated the Lys and Scarpe flow east to the Scheldt, the Aa north to the German Ocean, and the Slack, Wimereux, and Liane to the Channel. Farther south are the valleys of the Canche and the Authie, running from east-south-east to west-north west, and thus parallel with the Somme. Vast plains, open and monotonous, but extremely fertile and well culti vated, occupy most of the department. The greenest and most picturescpue valleys are in the west. To the north of the hills running between St Omer and Boulogne, to the south of Gravelines and the south-east of Calais, lies the district of the Wattergands, fens now drained by means of canals and dykes, and turned into highly productive land. The climate is free from extremes of heat and cold, but damp and changeable. At Arras the mean annual tem perature is 47 ; on the coast it is higher. The rainfall in the one case is 22 inches, in the other 31. With a total area of 2550 square miles, the department has 1899 square miles (more than two-thirds) of arable land, while woods and pasture land each occupy only about a twentieth. The live stock in 1880 comprised 76,224 horses, 9642 asses or mules, 156,060 cows, 35,272 calves, 5080 bulls or oxen, 256,031 sheep, 131,722 pigs, 26,760 goats. The sheep in 1880 yielded 857 tons of wool, worth 57,398. The national sheepfolds of Tingry are in Pas de Calais. The 22,260 beehives of the department yielded in 1878 1753 tons of honey and 39^ tons of wax. No department except Somme breeds fowls so extensively. Wheat, beetroot, and oil seeds are the principal crops. In 1882 wheat gave 9,855,483 bushels, meslin 920,023 bushels; in 1879, rye 781,150 bushels, barley 2,362,133 bushels, oats 9,421,818 bushels, beetroot 1,576,355 tons (almost entirely consumed by the sugar works), potatoes 7,250,813 bushels, vegetables 581,727, and colza seed 30,263. Besides there were considerable quantities of poppy-seed, flax (of excellent quality), hops, hemp, and tobacco (1275 tons). There are two great coal fields, that of Pas de Calais proper, a continuation of the coal-field of Valenciennes and Hainault, and that of Boulonnais. The former contains a total area of 134,270 acres ; the latter is about a tenth of that size. Taken together they number 72 pits, 57 of which are active. In 1882 5,036,455 tons of coal were extracted and 1,378,818 consumed in the department ; the industry gives employment to 22,925 persons. Peat (to the amount of 375,034 tons in 1882) is obtained in the valleys of the Searpe and the Aa. Iron-mines in the arrondissement of Boulogne employ 162 workmen (26,674 tons) ; the stone and marble quarries 2130 workmen ; and about 800 are engaged in obtaining phosphates of lime (295,566 tons), which are exported for manure. Blast furnaces, foundries, engineering works, naileries, boiler -works, agricultural implement factories, and steel- pen works are all carried on in the department. In 1883 305 tons of iron, 16,355 tons of steel, 65,025 tons of cast iron were manu factured ; and the average production of pens is 400,000,000 per annum. The establishments at Biache St Vaast melt, refine, and roll copper and zinc, and also work lead and auriferous silver. The ship yards do not launch any large vessels, but in 1881 they built eighty luggers or sloops, with an aggregate burden of 2456 tons. The eighty-nine sugar- works in 1880 produced 42,121 tons of sugar and 29,730 of molasses ; the distilleries 4,658,984 gallons of spirits ; the oil works 15 tons of hempseed oil, 389 tons of linseed oil, 3066 tons of poppyseed, rapeseed, and cameline oil, &c., and 797 tons of coka oil. There are 553 breweries in the department. Cotton-spinning and weaving employ 116,364 spindles and 625 looms ; wool- spinning 26,300 spindles ; and the flax, hemp, and jute manufacture 35,700 spindles and 497 looms. St Pierre-les-Calais carries on the weaving of tulles in linen, cotton, and silk, employing 10,000 hands, and producing with its 1506 looms goods to the value of 2,400,0 per annum. There are besides in the department establishments