Page:Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition, v. 17.djvu/777

Rh O C E O C H 719 and in the Defensorium contra errores Johannis XXII. papas, (1335-39), Occam only incidentally expounds his views as a publicist ; the books are mainly, some of them entirely, theological, but they served the purpose of the emperor and of his party, because they cut at the root of the spirit ual as well as of the temporal supremacy of the pope. In his writing Super potestate summi pontifieis octo qusestio- num decisiones (1339-42) Occam attacks the temporal supremacy of the pope, insists on the independence of kingly authority, which he maintains is as much an ordi nance of God as is spiritual rule, and discusses what is meant by the state. His views on the independence of civil rule were even more decidedly expressed in the Tractatus de jurisdictione imperatoris in causis matrimonialibus, in which, in spite of the mediaeval idea that matrimony is a sacrament, he demands that it belongs to the civil power to decide cases of affinity and to state the prohibited de grees. His last work, De Electione Caroli VI., restates his opinions upon temporal authority and adds little that is new. In all his writings against Pope John XXII. Occam inveighs against the pope s opinions and decisions on the value of the life of poverty in the practice of religion. The Compendium errorum selects four papal constitutions which involved a declaration against evangelical poverty, and insists that they are full of heresy. Occam was a sin cere Franciscan, and believed with his master that salvation Avas won through rigid imitation of Jesus in His poverty and obedience, and up to his days it had always been pos sible for Franciscans to follow the rules of their founder within his order. But Pope John XXII. took advantage of a dispute between the more zealous Franciscans and others who had departed from the strict rule of their founder to condemn the doctrine of evangelical poverty, and to excommunicate those who held it. This made many Franciscans question whether, when the pope set his opinion against that of Francis their founder, the pope could be infallible ; and some of them were so convinced of the necessity of evangelical poverty for a truly Christian life that they denounced the pope when he refused them leave to practise it as Antichrist, or the being who stood between Christians and the means of holy living. After Occam s days the opinions of Francis prevailed in many quarters, but the genuine Franciscans had no place within the church. They were Fraticelli, Beghards, Lollards, or other confraternities unrecognized by the church, and in steady opposition to her government. There is no good monograph on Occam. For an account of his logic, see Prantl, Geschichte der Logik (1855-70) ; for his philosophy, see Stockl, Gcs:hichte, dor Philosophic dcs Mittelaltcrs (1864-66), vol. ii. ; for his publicist writings, see Riezler, Die literarischen Wider- sacher dcr Pdpste zur Zeit Ludwig dcs Baiers (1874). See also Lindsay s article on iOccam and his connexion with the Reforma tion,&quot; in the Brit. Quart. Review, July 1872. (T. M. L.) OCEAN. See SEA. OCEANIA. See POLYNESIA. OCELOT. The smaller spotted or striped species of the genus Felis (see MAMMALIA, vol. xv. p. 435), of both the Old and the New World, are commonly called tiger-cats. Of these, one of the best-known and beautifully marked forms, peculiar to the American continent, has received the name of Ocelot (Felis pardalis), though zoologists are still un decided whether under this designation several distinct species have not been included, or whether all the ocelots are to be referred to a single species showing great indivi dual or racial variation. Their fur has always a tawny yellow or reddish-grey ground colour, and is marked with black spots, aggregated in streaks and blotches, or in elon gated rings enclosing an area which is rather darker than the general ground colour. They range through the wooded parts of tropical America, from Arkansas in the north as far south as Paraguay, and in their habits resemble the Ocelot. other smaller members of the cat tribe, being ready climbers and exceedingly bloodthirsty. OCHINO, BERNARDINO (1487-1564), Italian Reformer, was born at Siena in 1487. At an early age he entered the order of Observantine Friars, and rose to be its general, but, craving a stricter rule, transferred himself in 1534 to the newly-founded order of Capuchins. He had already become famous for zeal and eloquence, and was the intimate friend of the noble Spaniard Juan de Valdes, of Bembo, Vittoria Colonna, Pietro Martire, Carnesecchi, and others destined to incur the suspicion of heresy, either from the moderation of their characters or from the evangelical tincture of their theology. In 1538 he was elected vicar- general of his order; in 1539, urged by Bembo, he visited Venice and delivered a remarkable course of sermons, show ing a decided tendency to the doctrine of justification by faith, which appears still more evidently in his dialogues published the same year. He was suspected and denounced, but nothing ensued until the establishment of the Inquisi tion in Rome in June 1542, at the instigation of the austere zealot Caraffa. Ochino almost immediately received a cita tion to Rome, and set out to obey it about the middle of August. According to his own statement, he was deterred from presenting himself at Rome by the warnings of Cardinal Contarini, whom he found at Bologna, dying of poison administered by the reactionary party. He turned aside to Florence, and after some hesitation escaped across the Alps to Geneva. He was cordially received by Calvin, and published within two years several volumes of Prediche, controversial tracts rather than sermons, explaining and vindicating his change of religion. He also addressed replies to Vittoria Colonna, Tolomei, and other Italian sympathizers who were reluctant to go to the same length as himself. His own breach with the Roman Church was decisive and irreparable, and illustrated the justice of Luther s description of justification by faith alone as the articulus stantis vel cadentis ecdesise, the vital point whose acceptance or rejection drew everything else along with it. In 1545 he became minister of the Italian Protestant congregation at Augsburg, which he was compelled to forsake when, in January 1547, the city was occupied by the imperial forces. He found an asylum in England, where he was made a prebendary of Canterbury, received a pension from Edward VI. s privy purse, and composed his capital work, the Tragedy. This remarkable performance, originally written in Latin, is extant only in the translation